Sunday, November 4, 2012

Find Quality Investments With ROIC

January 05 2011| by Ben McClure
 
Return on invested capital, or ROIC, is arguably one of the most reliable performance metrics for spotting quality investments. But in spite of its importance, the metric doesn't get the same level of interest and exposure as indicators like the P/E or ROE ratios. Admittedly, investors can't just pull ROIC straight off a financial document like they can with better known performance ratios; calculating ROIC requires a bit more work. But for those eager to learn just how much profit and, hence, true value a company is producing, calculating the ROIC is well worth the effort.

TUTORIAL: Fundamental Analysis
Important mainly for assessing companies in industries that invest a large amount of capital - such as oil and gas players, semiconductor chip companies and even food giants - ROIC is a telling gauge for comparing the relative profitability levels of companies. For many industrial sectors, ROIC is the preferred benchmark for comparing performance. In fact, if investors were forced to rely on a sole ratio (which we do not recommend), they would be best off choosing ROIC. (There are many indicators for ranking a corporation's success. Learn more in Measuring Company Efficiency.)
The Calculations
Defined as the cash rate of return on capital that a company has invested, ROIC shows how much cash is going out of a business in relation to how much is coming in. In an nutshell, ROIC is the measure of cash-on-cash yield and the effectiveness of the company's employment of capital. The formula looks like this:


ROIC = Net Operating Profits After Tax (NOPAT) / Invested Capital

At first glance, the formula looks simple. But in the complex financial statements published by companies, generating an accurate number from the formula can be trickier than it appears. To keep things simple, start with invested capital, the formula's denominator. Representing all the cash that investors have put into the company, invested capital is derived from the assets and liabilities portions of the balance sheet as follows:

Invested Capital = Total Assets less Cash - Short-Term Investments - Long-Term Investments - Non-Interest Bearing Current Liabilities

Now, investors turn to the income statement to determine the numerator, which is after-tax operating profits, or NOPAT. Sometimes NOPAT is the same as net income. For many companies, especially bigger ones, some net income comes from outside investments, in which case net income does not reflect the profitability of operating activities. Reported net income needs to be adjusted to represent operations more accurately. At the same time, the published net income figure also may include non-cash items that need to be added and subtracted from NOPAT to reflect true cash yield. For the purpose of showing all of a company's cash profits from the capital it invests, NOPAT is calculated as the following:

NOPAT = Reported Net Income - Investment and Interest Income - Tax Shield from Interest Expenses (effective tax rate x interest expense) + Goodwill Amortization + Non-Recurring Costs plus Interest Expenses + Tax Paid on Investments and Interest Income (effective tax rate x investment income)
Interpreting ROIC
If the final ROIC figure, which is expressed as a percentage, is greater than the company's working asset cost of capital, or WACC, the company is creating value for investors. The WACC represents the minimum rate of return (risk adjusted) at which a company produces value for its investors. Let's say a company produces a ROIC of 20% and has a cost of capital of 11%. That means the company has created nine cents of value for every dollar that it invests in capital. By contrast, if ROIC is less than WACC, the company is eroding value, and investors should be putting their money elsewhere. (To fully utilize any stock metric, you must know how to read an income statement. Learn what figures to consider when performing a profitability analysis, read Find Investment Quality In The Income Statement.)
The extent to which ROIC exceeds WACC provides an extremely powerful tool for choosing investments. The P/E ratio, on the other hand, does not tell investors whether the company is producing value or how much capital the company consumes to produce its earnings. ROIC, by contrast, provides all this valuable information and more.

Moreover, ROIC helps explain why companies trade at different P/E ratios. The market demonstrates this well. From 1999 to 2003, the S&P 500 average P/E ratio fell roughly from 25 to 15, so the S&P 500 was trading at a discount to its historical multiple - does that mean the S&P 500 was oversold? Some market watchers thought so, but ROIC-based analysis suggested otherwise. Although the P/E ratio diminished, there was also a proportional reduction in the market's ROIC. This makes a lot of sense: since 1999 companies had had a much harder time allocating capital to worthwhile projects.

Investors should look not only at the level of ROIC but also the trend. A falling ROIC can provide an early warning sign of a company's difficulty in choosing investment opportunities or coping with competitors. ROIC that is going up, meanwhile, strongly indicates that a company is pulling ahead of competitors or that its managers are more effectively allocating capital investments. (The return on capital employed (ROCE) is an often-overlooked financial ratio, but it's one that can accurately calculate corporate efficiency and profitability. Learn more in Spotting Profitability With ROCE.)

The Bottom LineROIC is a highly reliable instrument for measuring investment quality. It takes a bit of work, but, once investors start figuring out ROIC, they can begin to track company results annually and be better armed to spot quality companies before everyone else does. (Analyzing the profitability of companies is a fundamental investment skill, but it also pays to play the trends. Learn more on how to actively manage your portfolio with The Volatility Index: Reading Market Sentiment.)

Read more: http://www.investopedia.com/articles/fundamental/03/050603.asp#ixzz2BE63AI3i

Monday, October 15, 2012

賣公寓‧律師費和稅務如何算?

讀者來信提問關於律師費、印花稅、產業盈利稅的問題。
他2010年6月30日,購買了一個公寓單位,價格是26萬令吉,2012年8月1日,以34萬5千令吉賣出。
1.請問賣方的律師費如何計算?假如雙方共用同一個律師,請問賣方的律師費用包括甚麼?
費用會比自己另外聘請律師便宜嗎?
2.請問產業盈利稅是如何計算?是根據買賣合約的日期或印花稅的日期?請問賣方要付的產業盈利稅是:RM85,000Ⅹ5%=RM4,250嗎?是由賣方直接開支票給律師去還,還是賣方自己去報稅、需要填寫甚麼表格?
3.請問甚麼是Retention Sum?是由賣方支付還是由買方支付?如何計算?
4.請問假如公寓還未有分層地契,需要尋求發展商的批准嗎?賣方需要支付甚麼費用?

5.請問銀行是否有新條例規定公寓超過10年、還沒有分層地契,就不接受貸款者提出的申請?
答:在產業買賣的過程中,買方需要支付律師費、印花稅,賣方需要支付律師費及產業盈利稅(如果是在購買產業5年內,計算之後證明賣方有可觀賺利才會被徵稅)。
假如賣方自己聘請律師,沒有和買方共用律師,所需要支付的買賣合約律師費,與買方需要支付的數目是相近的,就是根據律師公會制定的收費架構來計算,分別是:首15萬令吉1%、接下來的8萬5千令吉0.7%,以此類推。
買賣合約印花稅由買方支付
不過,買賣合約的印花稅是由買方支付,賣方不需要支付這筆數目,其計算法是這樣:首10萬令吉1%、接下來20萬至不超過50萬令吉2%。
當然,買方還需要支付土地搜查費、土地局割名的註冊費、抵押給銀行的手續費,以及其他雜項收費。
說到產業盈利稅的計算,以目前的產業盈利稅徵稅法令為准,任何人在購買產業的5年內出售,如果 計算後得出有賺利,需繳交產業盈利稅;在首兩年內脫售,被徵收的產業盈利稅是10%,在滿兩年之後至第5年內脫售,被徵收的稅率是5%。(*根據2013 年預算案,購屋者在購買房屋後的兩年內脫售,產業盈利稅將從原有的10%進一步調高至15%。購屋者在第3年至第5年之間脫售房屋,也要繳付10%的產業 盈利稅,比現有的5%增加一倍。)
假設浩然讀者的公寓是以34萬5千令吉出售,比買價26萬令吉多了8萬5千令吉,這並不表示凈賺8萬5千令吉,因為購買產業還包括需要支付律師費、印花稅、裝修費、貸款利息等開銷。
不過,如果是向發展商購買,可能不需要律師費與印花稅的支出,只能呈報裝修費、貸款利息等開銷。
律師在為客戶呈報產業買賣表格給稅務局,可以附帶這些費用的單據作為支出,以節省一些稅款,稅務局的官員會加以考量,假設這些費用加起來大約是3萬5千令吉,如果是過了2年、但在5年內脫售,徵稅率是5%。
以浩然的例子,如果賺利是5萬令吉,需被徵稅2千500令吉。
賣方須確保律師代繳稅款
在買賣的過程中,賣方不必急於開支票給律師樓,由律師繳付給稅務局,通常律師會從買方貸款銀行 釋給賣方律師樓最後一筆屋款時,保留一個數目,就是所謂的Retention Sum,譬如屋款的5%,等到稅務局來信通知律師樓,賣方賣屋被徵收的稅款,律師樓開出支票,代賣方繳付稅款後,剩餘的賣屋款將退回給賣方。
針對這點,賣方必須不時向律師樓跟進,確保律師樓繳付稅款,以免日後被追討稅款就麻煩了,還有要確保律師樓將剩餘的屋款退還給賣方。
律師樓一般可能會保留較寬鬆的數目,避免保留數目不足轉向賣方索取,誤了繳付稅款的有效期,通常稅務局給予的寬限時間是在通知信誌期的30天內繳付。
未有分層地契
需發展商批准交易
當公寓還未有分層地契,賣方或其律師需向發展商提出批准交易申請,賣方需繳付的手續費只是50令吉。
有些銀行可能比較保守,在獲知公寓已經10年,尚未有分層地契,以及產業所屬發展商已經收盤,不批准買方提出的貸款申請,另一個可能性是申請者的條件不符合貸款資格。
一般來說,當公寓還未有分層地契時,買方是以買賣合約向銀行申請貸款,除非情況特殊,多數申請者的申請都能獲批。

Tuesday, October 9, 2012

Mythbusting: Government Debt Edition Part II



by HishamH of Economics Malaysia

In a column yesterday at the Malaysian Insider, Azrul Mohd Khalib repeats all the same old myths about Malaysia’s government debt (excerpt; emphasis added):
Maxing out the national credit card
…Every national Budget over the past few years has had a deficit. When total national expenditure exceeds the revenue collected, a budget deficit then exists. The only way for the government to pay for this deficit is to borrow.
But like everything else in life and like you and me, contrary to what some people may believe, there is an actual limit as to how much debt that the Federal Government of Malaysia can accumulate…
…For Malaysia, the national legal limit is clearly stated under the 1983 Government Funding Act and the 1959 Loan (Local) Act and is 55 per cent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP). Under these two Acts, the government cannot legally have debt beyond this ceiling.
The 2011 economic report indicated that government debt had reached RM456 billion. This represented 54.3 per cent of the country’s GDP, which was also 0.7 per cent under the limit permitted under the law. That was in 2011…
…In 2011, the government received tax revenue of RM185.4 billion. But the original 2012 Budget was RM232.8 billion. So, the tax income alone is insufficient.
Therefore, the government has borrowed. But Malaysia prides itself on not borrowing from international sources such as the International Monetary Fund or from other countries. Therefore, 90 per cent of debt is domestically funded; it is borrowed from us, from the Employees Provident Fund (EPF).
Last year, the Ministry of Finance stated that the government had borrowed RM79.4 billion from the EPF. In fact, the government actually owes us more than RM240 billion. Yes, that is how those bonuses, numerous cash hand-outs and special projects are being paid for. With your EPF money…
The same principle governs our debt ceiling of 55 per cent. The only way to increase it and legally allow the government to spend more than the limit is for Parliament to amend the two laws mentioned. As far as I know, we have not done so.
If the government is spending more than the debt ceiling, then the spending is not legal. Seeing how in 2011 government debt had already reached 54.3 per cent of the GDP and RM20.5 billion is needed each year to service the country’s debt commitments, the question must be asked and answered: where are we today? Do we even care?
Financial agencies are already warning of a possible downgrading of Malaysia’s credit rating if the government doesn’t rein in its debt.
Short of very optimistic economic growth rates, it is almost certain that the government’s current spending levels have breached the debt ceiling this year. This could be a historical year. For the wrong reasons…
…The government has been adamant that there is sufficient revenue. Yet, it’s borrowing like mad.
The Auditor-General’s report is bound to reveal yet again the extent of wastage and mismanagement that is endemic in the system which cost taxpayers millions of ringgit. We will moan, groan and complain. And things will stay the same…
The people responsible for today’s debt will not be the ones paying for it. Instead it is our children and grandchildren who will be forced to pay.
They and we deserve better.
*SIGH*
My FAQ addresses all these issues and more and the original Mythbusting post adds further insights, but to save some time here are the key points in relation to the myths in this particular article:
1. The legal limit on debt
Neither the 1983 Government Funding Act nor the 1959 Loan (Local) Act actually mentions a limit, much less make a “clear statement” of it. The 1959 Act was amended in 2005, but the amendment does not mention a legal limit either. The limit is actually adjusted by government gazette with consent by the Agong. No parliamentary approval is required, nor is there any necessity to amend the acts themselves – the limits on debt are purely at the discretion of the Minister of Finance.
This is totally unlike the US, where the mandate for changing the debt ceiling is specifically under Congress. If you want to sight the Acts and the relevant gazettes, I’d encourage dropping by satD’s blog.
2. Calculating the 55% legal limit
I’ve only just come to understand this myself. The 2005 (Amended) Act governs issuance of MGS, while the 1983 Act governs issuance of GII and Islamic Treasury Bills. There are actually two other laws that regulate government borrowing – the External Loan Act 1963 and the Treasury Bills (Local) Act 1946. The total current gazetted limits (reproduced from a Treasury presentation) are set out below:
Legislation
Limit
External Loan Act 1963
RM35 billion
Treasury Bills (Local) Act 1946
RM10 billion
Government Funding Act 1983
Not more than 55% of GDP
Loan (Local) (Amended) Act 2005
Not more than 55% of GDP
The latter two are calculated in conjunction i.e. the calculated level is the sum of MGS, GII and Islamic Treasury Bills. Note the critical distinction here – the 55% limit refers to MGS, GII and Islamic Treasury Bills alone, and not total government debt collectively.
Far from approaching the 55% limit, the current aggregate outstanding issuance of MGS, GII and Islamic Treasury Bills is under 45% of GDP. The idea that Malaysia’s government debt is approaching some kind of legal limit has no basis in fact.
3. Commitment to 55% total debt to GDP
While there’s no danger of Malaysia breaching its legal debt limits, the government has made a commitment to keeping total debt below the 55% ceiling. This however is an internal target and is not legally binding.
4. The government is borrowing from EPF
Yes it is, but Azrul is mischaracterising this relationship. The Employees Provident Fund is a defined contribution pension fund for the benefit of private sector employees. As a pension fund, its primary mission is capital preservation, and as any fund manager worth his or her salt can tell you, the basis of any such investment portfolio is government securities because from a market risk perspective they are safer than anything else. Any pension fund, here or elsewhere, will have the bulk of its portfolio in government securities i.e. “lending to the government”.
In fact, since we’re talking about legal limits, Section 26a. of the EPF Act (Amended) 1991 specifically states the following (emphasis added):
“Subject to any variation which the Minister may make under subsection (2), the Board shall invest or re-invest at least fifty per centum of the moneys belonging to the Fund and invested or reinvested during any one year, in securities issued by the Government of Malaysia, provided that the total amount of moneys so invested in such securities at any one time shall not be less than seventy per centum of the Fund’s total investments."
If Azrul’s numbers are correct, then the EPF is actually in breach of its own Act based on EPF’s 2011 portfolio size of RM442 billion, which gives a ratio of about 54% – well below the 70% minimum level. Instead of asking why EPF is lending to the government, perhaps the more pertinent question would be why is EPF taking on more risks with our money by not “lending” as much to the government as it is required to.
(Digression: in Singapore, they avoid questions like this by making it mandatory for the CPF to invest all member funds into government securities. EPF on the other hand is allowed considerably more discretion and leeway in where to invest member funds).
Another pertinent point here is that EPF’s portfolio at the end of 2011 was about 1.56 times greater than the value of member funds i.e. it’s not necessarily “our” money being lent to the government.
5. Where the money goes to
Another administrative (not legal) rule that the government tries to abide by is to fund all operational expenditure out of collected revenue, and only borrowing to fund development. In technical terms, what’s being aimed for is that the operational budget should always be either in balance or in surplus, a principle that has been kept to all but three times in the last forty years. Borrowing is only utilised for development purposes (again technically, using the Development Fund under the government accounts).
In other words, civil servant bonuses, handouts etc, actually come out of tax and non-tax revenue, not out of borrowing.
6. Semantic issues
My nitpicking for the day. The government revenue quoted (RM185 billion) is actually total revenue and not tax revenue. Tax revenue for 2011 only amounted to RM135 billion.
7. RM20 billion for debt service
As an absolute number, it sounds like a lot; in relative terms it isn’t. As a ratio to the operational budget – which remember, is supposed to be in balance – the government’s interest payments for 2011 are actually the third lowest on record. In fact, the debt service ratio to operational expenditure the past four years has been at an all time low, averaging below 10%.
In 1990s when we were running a budget surplus, debt service averaged 23% of the operational budget, with the lowest level at 14.4% (1997).
8. Our children and grandchildren will be forced to pay for our debt
This is actually a tale of two hats, and the statement above comes from wearing only one of them. There’s an important and vital reason why borrowing from domestic sources only is preferred because when you’re able to do that, there’s actually no inter-generational transfer of aggregate welfare. In Econo-english – the future burden on tax payers is offset by the future revenue stream from debt repayment.
Since debt liabilities are owed primarily to domestic institutions (such as EPF, insurance companies, banks and the like) who are in turn either tax payers or acting on behalf of taxpayers and citizens, debt repayment effectively goes back to the payers of tax. In other words, the monies aren’t going anywhere, although there might be some redistribution of the proceeds.
If I wearing my taxpayers hat am liable for debt repayment of maturing debt incurred by my forebears, I wearing my EPF member, insurance policy owner, and unit trust investor hat am also at the same time the beneficiary of the government’s current debt repayment. And this is true at any given point in time, irrespective of when the debt is incurred.
Given that there are less than 2 million individual taxpayers and over 12 million EPF members, there’s also possibly a (small) transfer of wealth from the rich to the poor in the process.
The idea that government borrowing now is thus a net aggregate tax burden on future generations of citizens is mostly bunk. It would only be true if the borrowing is external, hence the reason why we try to keep government borrowing domestic and why external debt limits are far more stringent than the domestic limits.
Summing up
I suppose I’ll be repeating these points again (and again) in the future, but I think its worth the effort to do so. There’s so much misunderstanding of the unique position of government in an economy, and how significantly different governments are in economic terms from households. Imperfect understanding leads to skewed public discourse, which in turn leads to bad policy.
And we have enough problems as it is without having to invent fictitious ones that don’t actually matter.

Friday, September 14, 2012

債台高築何時了?加強財務根基乘風破浪

2012-09-13 17:44

戰國時,出國的楚襄王昏庸無能,大夫莊辛進諫無用, 結果秦國發動進攻,並佔領大片土地,楚襄王逃亡到城陽,這才記起莊辛的話有先見之明,於是派人把莊辛請來徵求意見。莊辛說:“看見兔子,再回頭招呼獵犬, 還不算晚。跑掉了羊,再修補羊圈,還不算遲啊﹗"後來楚襄王用了莊辛的計策,收復了淮北之地……“亡羊補牢"
若大馬能夠像“楚王"及時“亡羊補牢",顯然,為時未晚,政府究竟該如何為債務和赤字“雙高"的窘境力挽狂瀾?且看大馬的“莊辛"有何建議。
“政府極可能在2014年開始徵收消費稅(GST)!"
此話一出,突顯政府要以行動來證明,大馬壓制國債和赤字的決心。
政府曾表示,要放眼通過增加稅收及有效管理開銷控制赤字,以在2015年減至3%目標。減赤方式,一是確保內陸稅收局與關稅局獲得更多的收入,二是根據物有所值的概念管理政府開銷,減少不必要的開銷。
顯然,大馬政府已意識到未來數年財務整合和轉型的必要性,在經濟學家的施壓聲浪下,政府也在預算案來臨前強調,將推行以“價值"為上的預算案。
然而,無論最終出台的會否又是一個損及財政能力且大選氣味濃厚的預算案,“亡羊補牢"無疑是大馬長期扭轉財力的主軸,當中少不了健全的稅務機制、良好的財務規劃、落實津貼合理化大計、推動私人投資計劃……總言之,大馬需要的,是一個方向明確、永續的財政整合計劃。
政府該如何未雨綢繆?
當經濟成長穩健,削減赤字可能非當務之急,但未雨綢繆依然是決策者應有的態度,而要減少赤字,就必須確保開銷和收入的步伐一致。
大馬目前的困頓是,收入佔國內生產總值(GDP)的24%,開銷卻佔GDP的29%,結果,導致高至5%的赤字。
因此,政府能作的,就是擴大收入或減少開銷,或雙管齊下。
大馬評估機構首席經濟學家姚金龍說,大馬其實仍有許多“機會之窗",若大馬擁有5至10年的時間來轉型,一定有時間改善今天的財政情況,只是重組收入和開銷結構是迫切的。
“政府放眼在2015年削減赤字至3%,若能夠儘快達成目標絕對是好事,因為若債務持續走高,只會引發信心危機,反之,大馬的主權展望會更亮麗。"
赤字3至3.5%最理想
他直言,一個國家合理的赤字水平,胥視其經濟和就業等基本情況,以大馬當前的經濟情況來看,赤字若能介於3至3.5%,將是理想的目標。
“當政府順利減赤,伴隨而來的當然是經濟結構性的轉型,這必能令大馬經濟變得更具競爭力和有效率。"
他也提到,以出口為導向的大馬來看,維持全面的就業情況非常重要,大馬目前的失業率為3%,政府應調降至3%以下,當就業情況穩定,政府就不必大事花費來促進國民的消費力。
聯昌研究首席經濟學家李興裕指出,政府應謹慎設計稅務政策、消費和津貼合理化計劃,以提高工作和節約的津貼,同時透過吸引人才來鼓勵人力資本的投資、刺激私人資本、最大化資源、提供必要和符合經濟效益的公共計劃。
他相信,一個方向明確、具公信力、永續的財政整合計劃,能夠確保利率長期適中且支持投資者信心,進而支撐經濟成長。
或許,就如經濟學人企業網絡東南亞經濟專家伍德所言,大馬政府從今天起,就要學習,將錢花在對的地方!減少貪污、撤銷津貼,專注提昇教育、技術、基建……
調整開銷:
增加發展
節約行政
若長期“入不敷出",節約往往是唯一出路,政府長期“好大喜功",計劃缺乏績效常惹人詬病,以致“亂花錢"被視為赤字的頭號公敵,令經濟學家皆異口同聲——政府是時候開源節流!
李興裕指出,在整頓財務時,開銷政策應注重優先的計劃或削減開支,如降低公共領域龐大的薪水單。
應減公務員人數薪酬
大馬債券評估機構首席經濟學家諾查哈迪坦言,除控制供應和服務、公私合作計劃的開銷,政府也應善用盈餘來減赤。
姚金龍認為,政府可藉減少公務員的人數和薪酬來改善效率,或透過競爭性的投標來進行採購計劃,以降低直接開銷。
資深經濟學家白文春則提到,政府務必謹慎開銷,不應隨意上調公務員薪資,因公務員的人數太多,同時應減輕其他日常消費,如電腦經費。
不過,因為大選將至,政府向公務員薪資開刀的可能性不大,這也是為何MIDF研究經濟學家安東尼達斯認為,政府或無需減少公務員的薪資,但可以減少沒有必要的開銷,如旅遊開銷。
若取消津貼赤字有望減半
另外,隨津貼佔了赤字龐大比重,儘快重啟津貼合理化計劃,也是政府不應怠慢的方向。
姚金龍指出,津貼其實是政府開銷的最大問題,若取消津貼,大馬的赤字有望減半。
“當然,政府不能完全取消津貼,而是應在未來3年,逐步削減津貼,以免增添消費者的負擔。"
經濟學家普遍認為,政府必須探討的減赤方向,包括調整津貼受惠者的架構,減少支援富人,將焦點轉向保障赤貧人士。
然而,安東尼達斯不認同,政府現削減津貼,因這可能引起許多連鎖效應,最終打擊消費力,尤其隨原油價受挫,削減津貼也非理想的減債管道。
政府為減輕人民負擔,推遲津貼合理化大計,促使今年各種必需品的津貼估計達221億令吉,光是燃油(RON95汽油、柴油和煤氣)的津貼就高達195億令吉。
首相署表現管理及傳遞單位的津貼合理化計劃原定,RON95汽油與柴油價每6個月,每公升調升10仙,同時在2014年前,按年上調液化石油氣(LPG)價格20%。同時,糖價原定在2012年前,每6個月調高20仙。
應設監督組織
無論如何,李興裕強調,政府在預算規劃和發展上應設立一個監督組織,以確保規劃符合財政條例、預算程序,同時加強財務監管並確保財務紀律。
“政府現階段應更謹慎消費,在發展開銷方面不應經常超支,因為今天的歐豬多國就是因為缺乏財務紀律,債務頻頻上升,生產力卻節節衰退。"
調整稅收:
消費稅應循序漸進
山雨欲來風滿樓!最近,消費稅將出台的謠言四起,無論政府會否在大選後落實消費稅,國民應該作好心理準備迎接消費稅,因這因大選而被展延的消費稅,無疑是政府擴大收入的最佳管道。
姚金龍表示,消費稅能夠增添政府的預算彈性,也是政府無論經濟好壞,調整財務方向的最佳工具,令政府可隨時提高收入來平衡預算。
不過,李興裕認為,即使2014年推出消費稅,相信對赤字的影響中和,因初步落實幅度可能僅介於4到7%,僅會帶來約60億令吉的收益。
“無論如何,政府落實消費稅宜先教育民眾,消費稅落實的幅度也需循序漸進,不宜太繁瑣。"
經濟學家普遍相信,政府極可能在大選後宣佈消費稅,而只要方向正面,目前是推行消費稅的合適時機。
白文春指出,政府應儘快落實消費稅,否則很可能面臨大行下調評級,但由於消費稅需在明年大選後才能再度提案,最早的落實時間只有在明年杪。
不過,安東尼認為,政府不應在短期內落實消費稅,因這雖提高政府營收並減少赤字,但卻同樣動搖消費者的購買力。
“消費稅的執行應在大馬人的收入已達到一定的水平時,即最低薪酬制穩定。"
即使政府可能落實消費稅,初步估計以循序漸進方式落實,以確保中低收入家庭的可支配收入不受動搖,因若這群人士的收入受影響,將打擊私人消費,導致呆賬惡化。
應建立更健全稅務審查
另外,逃稅問題一直以來令大馬經濟損失慘重,因而,建立更健全稅務審查,相信也是政府加強收入的途徑。
李興裕認為,政府稅務政策需公平才能永續,政府也應加強審核稅務,以避免民眾逃稅。
“如果永遠只有少部份人繳稅,又怎能支撐大馬的財力?"
他補充,政府去年加強審核稅務,即順利改善收入,讓額外230億令吉的入袋。
根據全球金融誠信機構,大馬在2000年至2010年期間,共有多達1.08兆令吉的資金外流以避稅,反映大馬平均每年外流的資金達近千億。
姚金龍也提到,政府必須加強稅務結構,如延伸徵稅的範圍至一些非正式的課稅領域,因為實在太多公司即使營業額很好從未呈報稅務。
白文春則認為,要擴大稅收稽查並杜絕更多逃稅問題,政府可以在進口方面把關以降低逃稅率。
助私人投資
成經濟火車頭
若讓私人領域扮演更舉足輕重的角色,政府就無需經常注資推動經濟發展,相對的,負債和赤字皆有望改善。
李興裕表示,一個廣泛和投資友好的改革助於強化國家的財力,因這些政策將帶動經濟,進而降低公債。
“當私人領域帶頭投資,政府就能夠減少投資開銷。"
他直言,政府應清楚本身在經濟上扮演的角色是提供貨品和服務,而非過度干預經濟。
姚金龍也認同,若經濟持續成長,政府明年是時候退下,把“舞台"交給私人投資。
他認為,政府應放眼更多有素質並能夠為國家增值的私人計劃來減赤,因若公司自這些計劃中受惠,就能夠承擔更多企業和營業額稅,而當生產力提高時,受惠者不僅是公司,個人收入也因此更上一層樓。
“因此,專注推動私人領域,應是政府未來3至4年目標。"經濟轉型計劃在基本建設計劃陸續出台後,接下來的目標是吸引外國直接投資和推動私人投資,但目標能否達成卻是未知數。
私人投資近期恢復衝勁
白文春提到,目前經濟成長因政府扮演主要角色,需動用大筆經費,進而加重政府的負擔。
他說,在政府積極推動下,私人投資近期逐步恢復衝勁,這對經濟有利,也助提高政府稅收。
“不過,經濟轉型計劃如火如荼,卻未來見證到私人領域在帶動大馬經濟,這或歸咎於經濟結構上的問題,如人才短缺。"
然而,在伍德眼中,大馬近期致力重組經濟,促使私人投資在經濟轉型計劃帶動下走高。
提高競爭力是長期目標
長期以來,政府投資一直保持10%的成長,但私人投資佔GDP比例,自亞洲金融風暴,由40%猛挫至20%後,卻一直處於低迷情況,所幸的是,該問題已逐漸改善。
伍德認為,提高競爭力也是大馬政府必須放眼的長期目標,以降低政府的投資角色,政府不妨藉教育和人力來帶動生產力,同時改善價值鏈,助大馬免受原產品價震盪威脅。
他認為,政府的國家關鍵經濟領域(NKEA)計劃提高棕油和油氣的價值鏈,就是最好的見證。
“大馬的經濟和政府轉型計劃已為大馬的經濟實力帶來驚人改變,吸引外資無疑也可以成為減赤的動力。"
他以全球歐洲公司為例,這些國家可能因當地市場低迷,找不到出路,而將希望轉移到新興市場,大馬作為亞洲經濟市場的一分子,必然也是外資前進的目標,尤其目前轉型計劃力推的油氣業。
根據MIDF,大馬在2009至2010年期間,投資雖由政府主導,但已逐漸自公共轉向私人投資,而且專注“素質"而非“數量"的投資,助帶動生產力並提昇投資價值,這意味,外國直接投資可能重臨大馬。
應發掘新收入資源
隨天然資源的長期危機,致力發掘新收入渠道無疑是政府的必經之路,以待天然資源耗盡時,大馬還能靠著新投資生存。
姚金龍坦言,有人預言大馬在2015至2020年成為石油淨進口國,所以,發掘其他新收入來源尤其重要,政府可以開發一些以科技為主的領域,以提高製造和服務的附加價值。
天然資源現佔收入多達40%,目前大部份行業以資源為基礎,如棕油下游、橡膠、油氣,政府不應過度依賴天然資源,是時候減少對油氣領域的依賴。
白文春提到,政府現已逐步提昇投資素質,如發掘醫療旅遊和投資項目、提高電子和電器投資價值鏈,只是礙於當前全球經濟欠佳,令許多私人投資冷卻。
這也是為何以保健領域言,大馬已是新加坡後,區域第二舉足輕重的國家,而醫療和研發項目,都將帶動產業價值。
加強經濟改革效率
對於積極邁向高收入國的大馬,國債和赤字高掛往往和推動經濟息息相關,也可能因政府致力推動國家成為高收入國,然而,財政開銷的效率如何?
對國內經濟的影響如何?其實,也是政府應該檢討的。
首相署部長拿督斯里依德利斯曾表示,大馬要在2020年成為高收入國,必須先達到兩條件,即專注和競爭力,而舉債來投資以刺激經濟,債務將直接減低,這和希臘情況不同,因為他們債台高築,經濟卻持續衰退。
可是,根據聯昌分析,大馬2002至2011年的財政配套,確實對經濟創造了正面效益,但2005至2007年的效益似乎更顯著。
若以開銷來分析,公共消費和投資對GDP成長的貢獻低,反映財政方案因計劃執行的效率低而帶來落差。
確保錢花在對的地方
某程度言,計劃成本膨脹導致預算鴻溝龐大,進而無法對經濟帶來預期回報;公共計劃的管理不當和資金使用的失誤,也是禍首。
這證明了,若計劃的效率不好、效益低,政府開銷增加不一定改變產出和收入成長,所以,確保錢花在對的地方,是政府永遠應有的態度。
此外,大馬整體總產出的淨效益也微不足道,主要是稅務的負面效應可能抵銷了公共開銷的利好,這意味政府光靠提高稅收來支撐政府開銷非好事,因稅務走高意味淨可支配收入減少。
擔保債務
宜降低
政府經常為政府相關公司作擔保人也無形中加劇了的債務風險,因此,政府也是時候檢討“擔保人"的角色。
李興裕表示,政府相關機構的擔保債務屢屢走高,其實,在逆市中,這些債務都是無明的風險。
此外,儘管政府私有化公共計劃助減少財務負擔,但政府往往在公司私有化後又國有化,導致處理資金的方向也經常回到了原點。
“一些企業因管理不當而蒙虧,轉頭就向政府伸手要錢,導致政府的擔保債務有增無減。"
結語:
秦皇曾言:自足是靠自己雙足站穩根基,既然站穩就不易被跘倒!其實,不管是“外人"多慮,還是“國人"低估,為下一代奠定穩健的財政基礎,應該是大馬長期朝著的目標。
所以今天,無論大馬是否債台高築,古人“居安思危"和“亡羊補牢"的智慧,都帶來了一個重要啟示——只要財務基礎穩,那怕外面風大雨大,大馬依然能夠站穩住腳,乘風破浪。

Thursday, September 13, 2012

開源節流‧大馬減赤當務之急

2012-09-12 17:44
 
“君王如果能夠牢牢記住,就可以永遠享受今天這樣的歡樂了!"當晉悼公高興地把鄭國送來的禮物賞賜給魏絳時,魏絳謙遜地回應……
大馬此刻可能像“晉悼公"般,意識到減赤的當務之急,但大馬的“魏絳"又是如何看待債務和赤字的挑戰和風向?
全國大選千呼萬喚雖“不"出來,但預算案卻終得來。最近,政府就在草擬2013年財政預算案時強調,除將協助國人和刺激經濟之外,會將焦點放在努力減少國債上。
第二財長拿督斯里阿末胡斯尼指出,政府正探討數方案以減少國債,若能順利降低國債,意味著涉及債務的固定支出也將減少。
國行總裁丹斯里潔蒂也強調,政府將採取循序漸進的財政整頓和財政合理化政策,包括更有效收稅法和開源,使政府開銷更為永續,進而改善舉債狀況。
以上的放話皆突顯了政府的打債決心,然而,在預算案和大選吉日迫在眉睫、全球經濟成長依然疲弱,經濟學家如何看待這財務整頓大計,而政府放眼今年赤字目標佔國內生產總值(GDP)4.7%,又能否如願?
政府債務雖不如歐元區經濟體惡劣,卻不意味大馬決策者可以放慢財政改革的步伐,但在全球經濟脆弱和全國大選即將來臨下,這減赤任務似乎面臨了一定挑戰。
應逐步減公債佔GDP比重
聯昌研究首席經濟學家李興裕直言,政府必須致力整頓財務,以確保經濟在震盪格局中持續成長,惟調整赤字速度不應提前,主要是這可能破壞經濟復甦的力道,政府應放眼的是,逐步減少公共債務佔GDP比重,而不只是危機後的穩健。
“全球經濟成長情況將是大馬減赤的最大挑戰,畢竟大馬是個開放的經濟體,有必要,政府仍需出手支撐經濟。"
大馬債券評估機構首席經濟學家諾查哈迪也認同經濟成長的挑戰,反問,為何要倉促減赤?如果此刻,大馬需要資金來推動經濟並確保大馬人的就業機會穩定?
他坦言,當收入只有1千850億令吉,營運開銷卻達1千800億令吉時,大馬必然面臨財政壓力,尤其要在短期內削減赤字,但只要大馬經濟走向正確的方向,赤字在短期內都不是災難。
“這是我們必須償付的代價,以確保經濟不至於停頓!"
他認為,這次,大馬其實可作得更好,因為當全球大衰退在2009年發生前,大馬債務佔GDP比重曾順利減至約40%。
“當然,大馬的另一條路是,像希臘或其他歐洲國家,藉勒緊褲帶的政策來過活,但看看他們現在的情況如何?"
國家赤字
無明確執行方向
諾查哈迪直言,一個國家的赤字無明確執行的方向,重點不在於赤字水平,也在於赤字的融資方式,大馬曾在1980年時,赤字佔GDP高達15%,但重點是,總政府債務只有微不足道的4%由外資持有,其他幾乎是本地融資。
他以日本為例,債務比雖超過200%,但大部份債務卻是內部融資,大馬和日本的情況一樣。
MIDF研究經濟學家安東尼達斯也認為,政府應在經濟好轉時,才積極壓制債務,在目前經濟低迷下,政府其實只能向營運開銷下手,而非發展開銷,以免打擊經濟士氣。
政治左右財力
很多人說,歐債危機已轉化為政治危機,相同的,大馬的政治其實也無時無刻在左右國家的財力。
經濟顧問公司Centennial集團研究主管瑪努巴斯卡蘭指出,大馬的經濟和財力都需靠改革來解決,這些結構性問題,包括經濟競爭力、家庭負債的財務弱點,但皆因為政治問題而延遲,因此,症結在於政治,而非經濟。
許多市場觀察家也提及,大馬的財務轉型計劃迫切,但一直缺乏政治動力,政治的核心問題恐損害國家的財務和債務地位。
難在大選前對症下藥
一名經濟學家直言,政府為了大選,展延津貼合理化計劃、消費稅,又讓公務員加薪、發放現金,顯然,政治因素超越了經濟的考量。
由於大選隨時來臨,惠譽和標普皆認為,決策者難在大選前能夠對症下藥,令短期財務管理和結構財政轉型計劃不明朗。
“大馬國內政治增添公共債務展望的隱憂,大馬必須在2013年6月杪前舉行大選,在2008年金融海嘯後,贏回民心才是政府的當務之急,因此,政府短期內難處理公債問題。"
標普直言,因為政治因素,任何財務改革措施料在大選後才推出,而大選最遲可能到2013年6月前才進行。
減赤能否達標?
唱淡派:“政府忙著為大選前鋪路,恐是大馬債務和赤字“雙高”險境持續的主因......”
為大選鋪路
短期恐惡化
政府的目標是在2012年,把財政赤字佔GDP比重從去年5.1%降低到4.7%,然而,目標達成的幾率有多高,分析員看法參差。
經濟學人企業網絡東南亞經濟專家伍德對政府今年達標沒有信心,直言赤字短期還可能惡化,尤其今年。
今年赤字料達5.2%
“今年赤字估計達5.2%,再隨政府可能在明年縮減津貼,而改善至4.5%,之後在2016年,逐步降低赤字到3.8%。"
今年淨公債佔GDP比例料自51.8%增至54.9%,再於明年增至55.3%。
惠譽隨政府未提出任何可靠的短期方案來達到財改目標,估算政府債務在2012至2014財政年間仍將走高,各佔53.4、54.6和55.1%。
“政府改善收入的情況包括降低對燃料的依賴、施行消費稅,但這些政策卻屢遭展延,而隨全球油價續高歌,燃料津貼開銷可能持續並侵蝕政府的財務調度。"
此外,大馬政府原預見經濟成長5至6%,惟全球經濟四面楚歌促使政府下調經濟成長預測至4到5%,但政府迄今卻未調整赤字目標,而在全球經濟惡化下,原定的赤字目標恐難達標。
標準普爾也預見,今年政府債務自去年51.9%略走高到53.9%,淨債務則達46.2%。大馬2011年淨公債比重是43.7%。
羅比尼全球經濟亦隨大馬將進行大選,預見大馬政府在2013年的預算案捎來更多現金甜頭,導致能夠帶動生產性的投資資源減少,促使明年大馬債務佔GDP比重依舊高企54.6%。
“大馬政府近期已積極為即將來臨的大選舖路,早在6月宣佈高達138億令吉的輔助預算,多達80%作為保持汽油津貼和提高公務員薪酬。"
歷年資料顯示,政府開銷往往在大選期間較高,以支持經濟成長,因此,若大選至明年才進行,政府的額外營收一般用作推動經濟。
唱好派:“大行的預警和經濟成長超越預期等,是大馬達標的動力......”
成長超預期
赤字有望縮小
安東尼達斯直言,大馬經濟成長將是減赤的最大動力,隨上半年經濟成長平均達5.2%,預見全年經濟成長達5.3%,令今年赤字目標有望達成,而公債佔GDP比重估計降低至53.1%。
明年赤字或降至4.3%
“我們也預見明年經濟成長5.8%,促使明年赤字進一步降低至4.3%,續降低公債的壓力。"
此外,大行的“溫馨提醒"也料加強對債務和赤字“雙高"問題,加速達成減赤目標。
資深經濟學家白文春表示,除經濟成長超預期,政府料在大行預警下更重視財政紀律,今年赤字目標不但有望達成,甚至可能較預期優,佔GDP比重約4.6%或436億令吉,明年還可能進一步降至4.4%或439億令吉。
大馬今年調整後的財政赤字為4.8%或425億令吉。
“下調主權信貸評級可能打擊投資者信心,促使國家的貨幣走低並推高貸款成本,因此,政府必然嚴正看待問題。"
這也是為何他始終相信,大行的出發點是好的,至少為政府傳達了未雨綢繆的訊息,提高政府對開支的關注,視削減開銷為預算案目標。
強化稅務行政
即使政府可能將推出大選意圖濃厚的預算案,惟政府仍可能透過強化稅務行政,如自企業攫獲更多稅收,同時避免更多逃稅來達標。
油價降低、國油繼續支持政府財庫,也是政府達標的主力。
諾查哈迪認為,大馬今年的赤字有望縮小,歸功於全年經濟成長超越預期、收入的成長驚喜。
“之前市場預見收入成長低過2%,但結果卻是雙位數增長,高達20.4%,同時,若政府沒有重大開支、收入也步步高升,4.7%為何無法達標?"
除政府首季提呈的138億令吉預算,他不預見,政府短期內有任何顯著開銷。
赤字自1998年已開始存在,即使2009年經濟衰退,大馬仍有能力平衡預算,甚至在2007年大砍赤字,由5.5%降低到3.1%,顯示政府並未喪失減赤的能力。
若全球經濟未進一步惡化,達證券也看好大馬達到今年的赤字目標。
公共開銷來季料走高
儘管如此,礙於2012年高達2千308億令吉的預算開支,截至首季,大馬公共開銷仍明顯超越收入約60億令吉(或赤字約2.7%),公共開銷難免在未來數季走高。
“今年國債仍將續超過50%,今明年債務佔GDP比可能各達52和54.3%,若政府不修改債務頂限,赤字走低面臨挑戰。"
姚金龍雖預計大馬今年公債增幅維持5.6%,但相信政府在全國大選舉後,必開始收緊支出並整頓財務,減低市場對政府大開“水龍頭"的疑慮。
應向印尼獅城取經
其實,若政府學會把每次多餘的收入儲蓄起來,大馬的赤字勢必減少,而鄰國印尼和新加坡,或許可以成為大馬的學習對象。
在2000年時,大馬債務佔GDP百分比僅為35%;同期,印尼為90%,可到2011年,印尼已劇降到約25%,早在2009年,赤字更降至1.9%。
白文春指出,印尼是政府應學習的地方,該國曾因財務困境接受國際貨幣基金組織金援,但今天的印尼已經不一樣了,在生產力提高下成就了非凡的經濟轉型計劃,預算赤字與債務比也在近年節節敗退。
此外,清廉形象深刻的新加坡,自亞洲金融風暴後,政府和國家都未有明顯開支,外貿反而愈來愈強勁。
伍德認為,新加坡的理財確實值得多國學習,因該國的公債主要為債券市場或推動金融市場而設,儘管新加坡因是個開放的島國,經濟較震盪,但新加坡的宏觀經濟的資產穩健、政府融資管理妥當、國民儲蓄率高,都讓該國一直成為備受看好的世場。
一個國家雖不能每年都錄得盈餘,一般上,是在經濟低迷時陷入赤字,在經濟唱好時寫下盈餘,不過,大馬自1998年來至少經歷兩次經濟景氣,卻每年仍蒙受赤字,彷彿暴露了大馬政府未謹慎管理財務以平衡預算。
應在經濟週期內平衡收支
李興裕指出,自亞洲金融危機後,大馬無論是好景或劣勢,都面臨赤字,其實這是不應該的,當經濟穩定時,一個國家不應有赤字,政府應學會在經濟週期內平衡收支。
大馬回教金融教育國際中心教授拿督阿里夫直言,大馬自獨立以來,多達47年現赤字,似乎成了慣例,這也同時流露了大馬缺乏財政紀律,政府有必要調整營運開銷和稅收,及時扭轉現有劣勢。
即使今天包括政府附帶債務,大馬總債務達65%,仍不是立即憂慮,但減赤始終是當務之急,因為只有讓大馬變得更堅強,才能改善債務主權展望。
姚金龍坦言,大馬財政改革進程緩慢,歸咎於津貼水平高企、營收架構疲弱,過於仰賴石油相關營業額。
伍德指出,政府不應繼續讓這些債務和赤字數據持續狂飆,應儘快在明年管理開銷,因為一旦政府債務雪球愈滾愈大,政府收入也必須隨之擴大,以平衡收支。
應儘快落實消費稅減津貼
“大馬的政府債務確實有點高,幸運的是,大馬政府已意識到解決該問題的迫切性,政府應儘快落實消費稅並減少津貼,這是解決問題並避免問題進一步惡化的當務之急!"
達證券經濟學家胡瑞玲提到,大馬要邁向高收入國非不可能,但若不採取財政整頓計劃,可能挑戰重重,因即使國內基本面穩健,債務比仍將節節攀漲。
政府放眼在2015年前,國債佔GDP的49.9%,讓赤字進一步收窄至3%。政府也放眼透過經濟轉型計劃,國家經濟在2011至2020年每年平均增長6%。
看來,大馬要成為高收入國,除要寫下平均5至6%的經濟成長,債務和赤字也需達標。
結語:
“居安思危"並非旨在對大馬的債務和赤字杞人憂天、聳人聽聞,只不過為從事物發展的客觀規律中,觀察財務危機的端倪,警惕危難的徵兆。
在瞭解了大馬的財務窘境後,政府應意識到-若只知道享樂,不顧國家興亡,國家會有危險!最後一期的“亡羊補牢"要說的故事是,若大馬能夠像“楚襄王",及時挽救財務困境,一切未為遲也。

Wednesday, September 12, 2012

歐債前車可鑑‧大馬居安當思危

2012-09-11 17:44  
春秋時期,晉、宋等12國聯合攻打鄭國,鄭國只好向晉國求和。鄭國給晉國送去金錢珠寶美女等。晉悼公就把貢品分給大臣享樂。魏絳勸諫晉悼公不要只圖享樂,要居安思危。晉悼公認為他言之有理,就採納他的建議……
“居安思危"在國債和赤字“雙高"下,大馬在享受安逸快樂的時候,又有那些“危"不能掉以輕心?
希臘人因無力償還債務,民生水平直線滑落,自殺率在一年內翻增兩倍,失業人口急速竄升,雅典街頭充滿游民乞丐……
有人說,希臘等歐豬國家的倒下,是因為太多先甜後苦的政策,這也說明了一個殘酷的事實:若一個國家沒有競爭力、效率與生產力,只靠舉債來推動經濟時,經濟成長的代價可能是慘重的,而這樣的情景,會否有一天在大馬上演?
這問題的解答可能得先建立在以下問題中——債務和赤字高企是否削弱大馬的財政能力?天然資源會否有一天耗儘?國家石油長期派息動力會否減少?若經濟和收入成長趕不上債務和債務利息的成長腳步……
財力削弱
衝擊層面大
根據聯昌研究首席經濟學家李興裕,國債和赤字“高高在上",無疑將打擊國家的財政能力,衝擊包 括以下各層面:首先,高債務限制政府承擔額外的資產負債表風險,若大馬無法降低債務,主權債務評級可能面臨遭下調風險。財政赤字也將打擊決策者在未來面對 經濟風險時有效應對措施的能力。
長期動搖經濟金融實力
債務不斷上揚可能抵銷債務管理、財政政策和貨幣政策的優勢,而疲弱的財政管理和高企的債務,將危及貨幣政策目標,因高債務會提高通膨預期並推高實質利率或促使貨幣貶值。
此外,赤字無法維持也有其代價,因若投資者對政府管理財政措施的能力喪失信心,利息將上升。
目前難以估算公債的風險水平,但若無財政轉型,債務和赤字中期內仍將持續惡化。
政府債務長期高企也將在長期間動搖經濟和金融實力。公債升高往往將打擊私人資本形成和生產力成長,主要是國內游資競爭、利息走高,導致資源遠離私人領域或低效應計劃。
另外,儘管國內債務佔總債務高達96%,降低了外匯風險,但財政和貨幣政策之間可能需取捨,因投資者往往把政府降低升息壓制通膨的方向,視為壓制貸款成本。
資深經濟學家白文春亦提到,財政盈餘雖是大馬財力的優勢,惟大馬不能因此而忽略,推動國內投資時一般將帶動資本產品,而原產品價受挫也會導致盈餘減少,意味貿易盈餘難持久。
債務吞噬經濟成長
債務佔GDP比重現逼近關鍵水平55至60%,1997至2011年的債務增長率達11.5%,已超越同期實質GDP成長8.4%;債務利息佔收入比重不斷提高,預計佔2011年總收入高達10.1%,顯示即使大馬國債水平未達引爆點,長期財務風險早已浮現。
GDP只有個位數成長
一名經濟學家坦言,大馬經濟成長表現不俗,但若以大馬負債雙位數增長言,GDP只有個位數成長,政府負債恐早已佔GDP逾半,早抵銷了GDP的優勢。
此外,當複利和實質經濟成長開始分歧,這意味若政府債務達到一定水平時,償債能力將更艱鉅。
以歐洲金融危機言,當國家債務佔GDP比超過70%時,該國經濟很可能在未來數年出問題,因當債務比不斷增加,利息將跟著提高,進而降低國家還債的能力,導致推動經濟的投資減少,無法創造更多收入。
大馬諾丁漢大學商業學院聯合教授蘇巴馬聯直言,國民所得成長牛步,國債卻倍增,是經濟結構的一大問題。
他坦言,低人均收入一直是大馬經濟結構的長期弱點,若政府持續揮霍無度,之後又要國民買單,在2020年前恐無法圓高收入國。
“若以大馬人屆時人口達1.6兆人估計,每個人的債務負擔恐超過4萬令吉,要強調的是,這還未包括個人貸款。"他提醒,若以貸款利息5%計,光是支付利息,就已吃掉納稅人每年高達800億令吉!
隱憂1
債息壓力節節上升
當債務雪球愈滾愈大,利息費用佔政府開銷勢必日益沉重,可能在2020佔約18至25%,一旦貸款增加,政府必須承擔更多利息來舉債。
債息明年或佔收入10%
以歐洲情況為例,德國政府現每年舉債利息僅約2%,但意大利可能多達7%,一旦大馬延續意大利的方向,將導致促進社會和經濟的資金減少,並擴大收入的不平衡政策。
當國家債務比提高時,主權評級風險將被評級機構下調,一旦該主權危機出現,該國自國際市場籌資的能力將受挫,因融資成本已高企,債務持有人將對主權債券要求更高的回酬。
根據惠譽,在債務超過收入之下,大馬債務利息可能在明年仍佔收入多達10%,限制政府分配財務資源能力。
隱憂2
外資撤走風險冠區域
儘管大馬享有“淨外債主"地位,但外資佔總未償還長期政府債券走高至39%,令人不安,尤其在當下資本市場更為震盪之際。
大馬在2008年次季至2009年首季面臨海外儲備顯著逆轉問題,自佔GDP的31%挫至17%,加劇大馬面對短期資金流逆轉的風險,同時削弱大馬的外部融資能力。
羅比尼全球經濟認為,區域中,大馬面對外資撤走的風險最高,主要是歐元區和美國銀行債權佔GDP超過25%。
惠譽補充,大馬的融資彈性,主要獲公共領域的發達國內債務資本市場和政府債支撐,但外資在馬幣債券的持股走高,加劇大馬對風險逆轉的挑戰。
隱憂3
主權評級岌岌可危
相對其他主權債務評級為“A"的同儕,大馬公共財務情況一直引起爭議,除非大馬及時彌補公共債務的結構弱勢,否則大馬負面的財政壓力不斷增加,最終可能抵銷現有的信貸優勢。
標準普爾近期雖維持大馬評級,但不忘提醒,若大馬政府無法在大選後設法增加國家收入及削減津貼,不排除在未來幾年內,調降大馬的信貸評級。
惠譽指出,相對其他“A"和“BBB"級的國家,大馬公共融資相對疲弱,足以和當前高度舉債的國家,如意大利和以色列相提並論。
大馬的債務和收入比疲弱,以政府收入佔國內生產總值(GDP)22%而言,雖和新興亞洲同儕中值不相上下,但如果和“A"和“BBB"級的同儕相比,大馬的財務資源顯著落後。
標準普爾也提到,除以色列和波蘭,大馬的債務比其他“A"級的同儕高,債務和利息負擔甚至高過其他“BBB"級的國家。
大馬疲弱的財政及政府債務狀況,一直令主權評級受壓。隨大馬是個高度開放的經濟體,出口佔GDP多達90%,國債高企可能令大馬隨時面臨利息和成長威脅。
此外,大馬開放的貿易和當前相對高的國債,一旦面對利率和成長衝擊,國債比潛在激增必然引發信貸危機。
收入架構脆弱、消費津貼不斷增加、財務整頓計劃進展慢、債務利率走高等,都可能是大馬未來數年評級的包伏。
隱憂4
完美風暴不堪一擊
根據綜合機構的統計,大馬對美國、歐元區和中國的貿易涉及率達9分,僅較越南低;金融涉及率10分和總涉足率19分,皆在亞洲10經濟體中領先,這意味大馬對“完美風暴"的敏感度,是區域之最。
對外圍最敏感
在美國、歐元區和中國需求放緩方面,大馬亦是第二大涉足者,促使大馬成為亞洲整體經濟體中對外圍最敏感的國家。
然而,大馬面對危機的應變能力或也有限,因在應對危機的貨幣和財政方面,大馬排名最低,僅領先泰國、日本和印尼。
國油無法長期支撐國庫
國油目前每年貢獻政府收入300億令吉,惟國油早前向政府建議,降低常年派息比例至盈利的30%,股息總額估計為約170億令吉,國油擬調整股息架構,突顯了政府整合財政政策的迫切性。
國油擬降派息
兩年內難實現
由於股息收入對政府舉足輕重,在政府目前的財務窘境下,惠譽預見,國油降低派息的計劃難在未來兩年實現。
國油是大馬目前最大繳稅戶和收入來源,貢獻國庫高達45%的財政預算,根據惠譽,若國油減少派息,大馬財政赤字恐擴大至6.5%,而依據國際貨幣基金組織,6.5%的赤字估計比世界新興經濟體的平均水平高出近兩倍。
值得注意的是,若未來國油無法降低對政府的“獻金",即可能導致國油充作投資的資金減少並阻擾油氣經濟活動。
事實上,國油自2008年的天然氣津貼保持每年約190億令吉,已導致國家原本可用作發展的資金大減。
伍德指出,國油是政府非常重要的的財務支援工具,但國油的重點,應是投資並創造循環收益,不應為支撐國庫。
“雙油"經濟須省思
石油天然氣和棕油是大馬經濟長期以來兩大支柱,這些資源會否耗盡並導致大馬淪為原產品進口國,正是市場關注的問題,若該情況浮現,大馬未來預算恐更步履維艱。
天然資源恐耗盡
惠譽提到,大馬自1990年後期的亞洲金融危機以來,對非石油收入的依賴已每況愈下,大馬過度依賴石油收入限制了預算的彈性。
“令人堪憂的是,大馬作為淨石油出口國的地位早已受動搖,因不遠的將來大馬很可能淪為石油淨入口國。"
政府的主要收入以石油和天然氣生產和出口的各種營收為主,包括企業稅、石油盈利稅、專利權稅、國家石油(Petronas)的股息,比重估計佔政府營收約30至40%。
石油相關收益現佔政府收入高達36%比重。過去數年全球油價走高,已導致總收入超過三分之一為石油相關收入,佔GDP約7%,惟過去10年,津貼提高、石油和天然氣投資有限下國內燃料需求強勁,卻促使淨收益縮小。
“除隨時面臨天然資源耗盡的風險,油價震盪也難免波及收益並掐緊政府的財務,而大馬過度依賴能源相關的收入和無法調降的消費津貼,勢必進一步壓制預算的彈性。"
應創造再循環收入
經濟學人企業網絡東南亞經濟專家伍德直言,一個國家的收入大幅依賴天然資源是好事,但如何善用收入卻是另一門關鍵智慧,政府應著手創造再循環的收入。
“以印尼為例,該國的收入也主要依賴天然資源,同時沒有其他支柱,但財政情況卻不俗。"
他強調,大馬若依賴資源收入卻未提高生產力,才是最大問題。
“當前棕油需求雖強勁,但短期來看,原產品價震盪仍將左右收入。"
事實上,目前依賴石油相關資源的大馬,不應該出現赤字問題。
蘇巴馬聯指出,許多靠石油收入的公司一直在未雨綢繆,挪威、阿布扎比、博茨瓦納等天然資源豐富的國家,通常會保留部份天然資源的收入作為長期投資,不幸的是,大馬政府未引以為鑒,如果一直沒有未雨綢繆,恐把沉重的負擔留給下一代。
大馬2019年會破產?
在歐豬多國相繼淪陷時,“大馬會在2019年破產"的預言曾一度引起市場關注,在經濟學家眼裡,大馬的債務和赤字若持續高歌,競爭力和生產力卻未隨之提高,總有一天會陷困。
亞洲策略與領導研究所(ASLI)公共政策研究主席丹斯里拉蒙警告,若政府不抑制財政赤字和債務,國庫總有一天會陷困。
“即使次季經濟成長令人驚喜,但大馬不應該對債務掉以輕心,因為全球經濟仍危機重重,大馬必須靠穩健的國庫應戰。"
負債率總有一天破100%
隨大馬近期靠著提高開銷來推動國民消費和公共投資,拉蒙也質疑大馬公共措施的持久性。
“政府提高薪水、津貼及現金糖,都助於提振經濟,經濟轉型經濟方案也提振國內投資,這些都是刺激經濟的良好舉措,惟關鍵是能夠持續多久。"
若政府不謹慎管理債務,大馬評估機構(RAM)首席經濟學家姚金龍也認同,這遲早讓國家面對嚴重的財政風險,並損及大馬抵禦外圍經濟衝擊的能力。
“若全球市場出現突發利空,這些債務就會像計時炸彈般隨時引爆。"
他坦言,若政府不抑制開銷,即使大馬擁有石油的高收入貢獻,債務水平在未來幾年仍將繼續攀升。
大馬回教金融教育國際中心(INCEIF)教授拿督阿里夫指出,若公債持續飆升,大馬政府負債率總有一天會破100%。
“儘管大馬在1986年成功在高達112%的負債率下生存,但不意味大馬應該對債事掉以輕心。"
一名經濟學家指出,以大馬目前債務佔GDP達53.5%來看,若沒有處理該問題,將迅速飆升至70%,若不盯緊,難免逐步走向歐豬多國的行列。
“若政府繼續像當前的政治人物,胡亂派糖,舉債以發展不重要的計劃,或持續以稅務津貼支撐政府相關公司,該情況恐更糟,政府的國債可能輕易衝破5千億令吉。"
惠譽也提到,大馬2010和2011年經濟成長雖強穩,但政府債務佔GDP比重卻高達55%,顯示財務政策彈性有限,若該債務頂限續飆升,難免向債務展望施壓,可能在2015年前飆升到65%。
“大馬政府債務料繼續升高,直到2016年,如推行刺激方案,勢必令政府債務升破目前的55%頂限。"
結語:
“思則有備,有備無患",在瞭解了大馬長期和短期的風險和隱憂後,整頓財務似乎是大馬的當務之急,然而全球經濟搖搖欲墜、全國大選迫在眉睫,減赤任務彷彿阻力重重,大馬的赤字和國債風向又將吹向何方?下篇的“居安思危"將為你剖析。

Tuesday, September 11, 2012

國債或創20年新高‧大馬債赤暗湧?

 2012-09-10 17:44
三千多年前,周武王伐紂滅商,建立朝代時,周朝十分興盛,被世人喻為“大周八百年",沒想到,800年後,周赧王被債主逼得躲在一座台上,成了東周最後一個國王……
誰也沒料到,希臘這個3千多歲的文明古國,今天會落得“周赧王"的下場,而大馬目前的國債和赤字水平會否是“周赧王"的前身,或許,可從大馬國債和赤字有多沉重,來釐清“債台高築"的迷霧。
“大馬國家債務自2007年2千660億令吉幾乎倍增至4千210億令吉,是區域第2高,若以大馬人口2千800萬人言,幾乎是每個人背負高達1萬5千令吉的沉重國債!"
在國際貨幣基金組織(IMF)估計大馬政府債務佔國內生產總值(GDP)比重,可能會在今年創下20年新高水平之際,大馬一步一步走向“周王"窮途末路的流言蜚語四起,因為自70年代起,大馬預算赤字可謂有增無減。
1920年時,歐美總債務其實僅佔GDP的1.5%,但自1980年初卻不斷走高,不知不覺中,歐洲國債已達近4倍,美國近3倍。
這正說明了,債務的堆積不是一朝一夕!
目前,大馬公債佔GDP比重約54%,相對當前相繼淪陷的歐豬多國,債務比皆超過100%,確實是小巫見大巫,但若和其他東盟國家相比,大馬的國債和赤字皆處於高位。
財赤佔GDP逾4.8%
冠東盟
若以大馬去年財政赤字佔GDP逾4.8%言,不僅在亞洲新興經濟體中排名第二,僅次於印度(印度財政赤字多達5.8%),更是東盟區域之最。
反觀,東盟其他國家的赤字,大部份皆不到1%,新加坡約0.3%;泰國為0.9%,即使近年經濟迎頭趕上的印尼,赤字也僅1.3%。
值得一提的是,大馬去年國債佔GDP51.8%,新加坡雖以高達93.5%領先,惟新加坡的赤字並沒有因此惡化,難免令人聯想,大馬的赤字可能源自財務規劃的疏失。
數字會說話,現就讓我們用數字來瞭解大馬的國債和赤字水平,是否隱藏了計時炸彈。
過去40年
債務成長三部曲
根據國家銀行和財政部經濟報告,政府未償還債務自1970年不斷走高,約1984年時,大馬公債低於500億令吉,但1991年時已一度破短期巔峰990億令吉。儘管大馬順利在1997年前把國債降低至900億令吉,但自此債務水平可謂每5年倍增。
首季公債近4540億
大馬國債在約1998年升破1千億令吉後,再於2006年破2千億令吉,2009年時再破3千億令吉,直到去年已衝破4千億令吉。截至今年首季,大馬的公債已近4千540億令吉。
換言之,2011年的公債水平,由2007年的2千470億令吉暴增逾50%到4千210億令吉。這也難免有人質疑,大馬自1998年亞洲風暴以來一直舉債渡日,因大馬自1999年的10年內,債務增長高達4倍,若以大馬建國50來看,大馬的負債是每年增約1%。
債務逼近55%頂限
此外,大馬的債務頂限也不斷擴大。國債上限早在2008年4月自40%走高,政府早前祭出財政措施以應對全球金融危機,更導致大馬債務上限在2009年7月,自45%升高到55%。去年大馬政府債務佔GDP約54%,已逼近到財政部設定的55至60%頂限。
根據聯昌研究,政府債務在1971至2011年按年增11.6%,過去40年的債務成長可以“三部曲"形容。
★第一部:
債務在1970和1980年中期間,1971至1983年的債務增幅為每年19.6%;1984至1987年為每年增12.4%,主要是政府祭出擴張性的財政政策並執行顯著的公共計劃或投資。
因此,1980年債務佔GDP比重,自1970年平均46.5%提高到78.6%。
該比例甚至在1986和1987年,跨越100%。政府加速增加債務以縮短結構預算差距。
★第二部:
債務和財政赤字的反向問題導致政府採取痛苦的財政結構調整方案,包括重新以公共計劃為首,將公共領域的公司減至最佳的數量,同時私有化政府機構、謹慎和致力管理債務。
1987年,政府推出政策以預付更多沉重的外債,以壓制外債並減少債務利息負擔。這促使1997年的債務佔GDP比,自1987年多達103.5%急降到31.9%。
政府順利大砍國債,部份歸功於1993和1997連續5年在經濟成長良好、收入成長強勁和開銷受壓下寫下財政盈餘。
★第三部:
自1997到98年亞洲金融危機,政府債務佔GDP比重按年走高11.5%,在2011年達4千561億令吉或佔GDP的53.5%,若以1989至1997年言,為每年增0.1%。債務升高主要是政府需資金應付15年的赤字。
大馬政府曾表示,不讓政府債務膨脹至占GDP逾55%,但其實若納入政府擔保貸款,大馬政府去年的實際總債務可能已破5千730億令吉,相等於GDP超過65%,若再包括許多政府擁有的企業,債務比恐怕更驚人。
聯昌指出,政府未償還擔保債務無節制地上升是另一令人焦慮的現象。這些債務自1997年增長迅速,在2010年杪,已自1985年杪的110億令吉升高到969億令吉,或佔GDP的12.7%,相等於每年平均增8.7%。
一般上,這些未擔保債務只有在相關法定機構或公司違約時,才會引發債務問題。聯昌相信,捷運計劃料再度增加間接性負債。
外資比例大幅走高
另外,債務可分為國內債務和外部債務,自亞洲金融風暴後,亞洲國家積極降低外債以避免財政地位投機客狙擊,大馬在歷經上一輪浩劫後也致力降低外債比例。
目前國內債務佔總債務高達96%,雖降低外匯風險,惟令人擔憂的是,外資佔本地債市比重不斷走高也提昇了大馬債務的潛在風險。
截至去年杪,外資佔大馬未償還國債和政府債券的比例,已從12和17%,大幅走高到23和37%。
行政開銷一直增
燃料津貼最沉重
大馬為何長期陷入財務困頓?基本上和國民的負債問題一樣,開銷太多、收入太少。
資深經濟學家白文春指出,津貼隨汽油價暴漲和政府開支不當,是政府債務和赤字高居不下的主因。
“津貼是政府開銷最大的一環,尤其油價早前狂飆,大馬開銷必然顯著上升。"
去年燃料津貼
佔收入近11%
政府去年津貼多達328億令吉,今年估計破330億令吉,政府自去年中展延合理化津貼計劃,更已導致今年津貼超越原定預算,促使政府高達五分之一的收入的營運開銷充作津貼。
燃料津貼是沉重開銷之一,去年燃料津貼估計佔政府收入近11%,比較2002至2010年僅5.9%,相等於每輛汽車約310美元的津貼。國油的天然氣津貼,每年就達180億至200億令吉。
輔助金傷財政元氣
白文春指出,因為大選蹙音近,政府遲遲無法向津貼下手,多次分發輔助金,更是導致赤字元氣大傷。
“雖然政府強調,這些輔助金,都在他們的預算內,但如果政府不接二連三派發這些輔助金,也不把去年多餘的稅收來派糖,政府絕對有多餘精力減赤,赤字也會比較小。"大馬政府於6月宣佈高達138億令吉的輔助預算,高達80%為保持汽油津貼和提高公務員薪酬。
競標計劃不透明
公務員多成負擔
另外,競標計劃不透明和政府直接開銷龐大也是一直令財庫吃不消的根源。
根據總稽查署,2010年的管理開銷共超支25億7千萬令吉,或超出原有撥款的1.7%,高達9個部門和機構入不敷出,即開銷超過所得的撥款。
白文春認為,政府沒有審慎挑選競標,導致連購買文具等小事,都可能惹人詬病,而政府公務員人數龐大,薪資、花紅其實都是沉重負擔。
第二財政部長拿督斯里阿末胡斯尼指出,行政開銷數額一直增加,主要是涉及了固定的開銷,如退休金、薪酬和債務。
兩大開銷去年達520億
以公務員多次加薪與各類津貼為例,這兩大開銷在2011年佔了多達520億,比2010的 499億高,這也是為何自1990年以來,除1992至1994年以外,每年的預算案均超支,即實際支出年年超出計劃支出,如今年6月中,便為2012年 預算案(高達2千328億),追加138億的額外支出。顯見,政府財政紀律過於鬆散,隨意性太高。
大馬公務員比例也曾引起全球之冠之疑,去年公務員人數多達80萬人,若加上軍警部隊的26萬大軍,人數恐已破106萬人,開銷達535億令吉,若再加上13州屬約10萬人,大馬公務員人數已衝破126萬人。
政府早前宣佈派發半個月或最少500令吉的花紅予公務員,雖強調不會影響赤字,但在市場人士眼中,這早已對原已沉重的赤字雪上加霜。
收入趕不上開銷
政府債務每年增11.5%到約4千561億令吉,赤字也不斷惡化。大馬自1997年亞洲金融風暴始已面臨赤字問題,過去15年的赤字不斷。
1982年赤字16.6%
達巔峰
在1970至1980年之間,大馬赤字介於3.3和16.6%,1982年是赤字的巔峰,達16.6%,超越1981年的15.6%,惟赤字佔GDP比重,曾在2009年達7%新高前,於2007年,自2002年的5.3%降低至3.2%。
大馬2011年赤字佔GDP的4.8%,較預計的5.4%低,歸功於額外的收入2.3%,惟政府提高行政開銷和全球油價走高促使津貼較預期高,抵銷了該利好。
當開銷超過收入,往往會出現“入不敷出"的情況,相同的,若政府赤字一直擴大,禍首往往逃不了政府支出太多、收入停滯,甚至減少所致。
儘管大馬過去曾大幅減赤,促使赤字佔GDP比例,一度自2009年的7%降低到4.8%,但在收入和支出無法平衡下,減赤目標一直裹足不前。
根據財政部,政府自2007年至2011年,收入僅從1千400億令吉成長31%至1千830億令吉,顯然,該收入遠遠無法趕上倍增的舉債步伐。
營運開銷每年增10%
收入僅增8%
大馬雖取得營運盈餘,但盈餘幅度已因營運開銷上升而收窄。大馬1997至2011年的營運開銷每年增10%,但收入每年增幅只有8%。
根據達證券,截至首季,公共開銷仍超越收入約60億令吉(或赤字約2.7%),公共開銷在未來數季很可能繼續升高。
聯昌指出,大馬2011年的營運盈餘自2010年的80億令吉猛挫至28億令吉,在營運開銷毫無約束下,營運盈餘能否持久?收入能否持續擴張?都是疑慮。
更重要的是,大馬的收入一直萎縮,目前,總收入的33%來自汽油收入、稅務佔約36.8%。
自亞洲金融危機以來,政府開銷一直超越收入,若2011年的開銷達2千290億令吉,營收只有1千830億令吉,當中的差距往往需以債務來彌補。
目前總營運開銷估計約65%為“鎖定"開銷,包括薪酬(佔總營運開銷28.6%)、津貼(18.3%)、債務利息(11.3%)、退休和遣散費(6.7%)。
營運盈餘每年挫13.4%
大馬1998至2011年的平均每年營運盈餘為104億,或每年挫13.4%,顯然,不足以應付發展開銷的迅速成長。同期平均每年發展開銷為362億令吉,或每年增8%。這促使1998至2011年,整體赤字介於1.8和7%。
發展開銷是財務政策的關鍵因素,以拓展國家的生產能力,進而推動經濟成長和投資。
在2008至2009年全球經濟衰退時,大馬的發展開銷尤其顯著。
大馬在2008至2009年的金融風暴期間,曾分別祭出各值70億和600億令吉的經濟振興配套,但實質出台的現金僅為130億令吉。
值得一提的的是,大馬是個天然資源豐富國家,相對其他缺乏“先天性"優勢卻能保住低赤字的亞洲國家,大馬國債無法與收入成正比,似乎引起了許多問號。
以去年情況為例,大馬去年收入走高歸功於油錢上漲所帶來的意外橫財,眼看這應助於減少國債,但政府開銷卻依舊多達176億令吉,當局歸咎於石油和柴油津貼增加、薪資開銷走高。
結語:
無論是“外行者"多慮,還是“自己人"低估,大馬國債和赤字長期有增無減已是不爭事實,然而,眼望債務讓歐元巨人接二連三地壯士斷臂,大馬會否有一天重蹈“周赧王"的覆轍,值得深思,或許可以從“魏絳"對“晉悼公"的告誡——“居安思危"中檢討大馬的長期財力。

Monday, September 10, 2012

歐債尾大不掉‧大馬債往何處?

2012-09-09 16:00

戰國時,周赧王懦弱無能,然心懷雄心,圖謀合楚、燕等國之力攻打秦國,但慮軍餉不足,乃向國內富者借貸,允以凱旋後倍利償還。不料,未及與秦交戰,周王已懼而撤歸,而所貸之軍餉已用罄。斯時,索債者日聚宮前囂罵,使之膽戰心驚,迫匿於宮中高台中,不敢下矣……“債台高築"
債台高築,一語道儘歐債風暴底下多國的心酸。有人說,歐債風暴是二次世界大戰或六十多年以來全球最艱困的時期,這災難對不同區域的衝擊不同,也殘酷考驗世界的財政對策。
然而,自亞洲金融風暴劫後餘生的亞洲財力是否已更強韌?這對近期因高債務和高赤字陷入國債風波的大馬,又是甚麼提示?
今天,就讓我們從歐洲“債台高築"的“周王"說起,看大馬會否成為下個“周王",大馬又是否有必要向“居安思危"的“晉悼公"看齊,再向“亡羊補牢"的“楚王"學習,以在債務風暴中站穩住腳?
炎炎夏日,歐洲杯開鑼,然而,球迷和球員陣陣的歡呼聲卻揮不走歐債風暴的陰影,最後反留下“球場高歌猛進,財場債台高築"的無奈。
在成績未出爐前,網上還曾流傳一個笑話——冠軍已內定,德國隊冠軍,希臘亞軍,因為在歐債危機中,德國和希臘扮演兩個重要角色:誰不讓德國隊贏,德國就不借誰錢,誰不讓希臘隊贏,希臘就不還誰錢……
這則笑話,正道出當一個國家處於“周王"的劣勢,基本上已無任何主權可言。現就讓我們從“歐豬 五國"(PIIGS)——葡萄牙(Portugal)、意大利(Italy)、愛爾蘭(Ireland)、希臘(Greece)和西班牙(Spain) 中,球場和財場雙失意的希臘掀起這波“債台高築"的歐債風雲。
“農夫一心只想過國王的生活……"這正是一個3千多歲的西方古文明濫觴,歷史倒轉了一大圈的悲哀。這原為西方民主象徵的希臘,究竟犯了甚麼錯誤,落得如此下場?那是“周王"的過度舉債。
希臘赤字佔GDP 12.7%
歐債危機爆發3年多來,希臘一直處在風口浪尖上,今天的希臘,是PIIGS中財政赤字最嚴重的 國家,財政赤字占國內生產總值(GDP)比例達12.7%,愛爾蘭以12.5%居次,西班牙、葡萄牙、意大利各達11.2%、8%、5.3%,皆超越公約 規定的財政赤字占GDP比例3%的上限。
政府債務問題最嚴重的國家同樣是希臘,政府債務占國家GDP比例達125.7%,意大利以106.6%居次,葡萄牙、西班牙、愛爾蘭各為81.1%、46.1%、46%,除西班牙和愛爾蘭,幾乎都超約公約規定的政府債務占GDP比例60%的上限。
只靠舉債無生產力隱憂大
次貸風暴延伸到今天的主權危機,牽引出許多令人深思的爭議,如國家靠舉債堆積出的海市蜃樓,因早在金融海嘯暴發前,這些國家都在大肆舉債以刺激國內經濟成長,愛爾蘭就曾因高達10%的高經濟成長,由貧窮小國,一躍成為凱爾特之虎。
經濟學人企業網絡東南亞經濟專家伍德指出,經濟成長有兩種方式,一是靠生產力,二是靠舉債,以生產力推動經濟力是好事,但只有債務成長,生產力卻原地踏步,卻是隱藏的危機。
“很多國家都靠舉債推動經濟成長,但無生產力是大問題,因為當市況艱鉅時,債務堆積出來的成長不堪一擊。"
歐債實為信心危機
當國家過度舉債,政府償還債務能力往往成了根本問題,2008年金融風暴引爆後投資熱潮減退,各國政府得靠擴大財政支出來挽救經濟,債務危機自然浮出台面。
歐債危機其實也是一場信心危機,尤其當希臘爆發前政權透過粉飾希臘政府高達10億歐元的公共債務赤字來擠入歐元區、大到不能倒的國家相繼搖搖欲墜、政治選舉的隱藏性地雷,反映在市場上的自然是遭唾棄的垃圾公債,難免遭評級機構下調評級。
歐洲中央銀行週四宣佈無限量買短債,以全力拯救歐元,雖為市場帶來些許定心丸,但9月12日,德國聯邦憲法法院是否判決政府參與歐洲穩定基金(ESM)和財務協議,成為全球焦點,如一切順利,歐債危機有望跨前一步。
伍德認為,歐債是一場漫長的戰爭,需至少4到5年來解決,懸而未決的幾率很大,歐元區瓦解的幾率多達四分之一,只要一國脫離,其他“難兄難弟"恐受波及。
一名經濟學家認為,歐債危機有望峰迴路轉,惟因政治因素,歐債一直懸而未決,歐債危機最壞的情況是,希臘強烈反對撙節並推出歐元區,其他歐元國被迫築起防火牆來以免“禿鷹"咬死。
“只是,德國和法國意識到,西班牙和意大利有秩序地退出歐元區,成本太高,而希臘退出也恐導致西班牙意大利因公債利率狂飆而破產。"
改弦易轍
亞洲捍衛經濟
歐債危機令全球經濟還未脫離2008年點燃的全球金融風暴,這災難的打擊因國而異,主要是各國有多大的財政籌碼來應對,差別很大,這對經過亞洲金融風暴洗劫的亞洲,道理是一樣的。
若歐債危機一觸即發,全球經濟潰不成軍,近年強勢崛起的亞洲難免屢遇挫折,因世界經濟現面臨的風險是另一個“雷曼式"的低潮,可能凍結全球資本市場,引發全球貿易崩潰,再度觸發全球經濟衰退。
亞洲銀行未拉警報
伍德直言,亞洲其實也受西方債務主導,因消費者提高舉債以帶動出口,不過迄今,亞洲銀行整體情況穩健,債務成長和經濟增長一致,未拉警報。
因舉債推動經濟,導致亞洲銀行債務佔GDP比不斷攀升,去年不包括日本的亞洲銀行佔GDP比已破105%;若以亞洲銀行貸款和存款比言,除韓國和泰國超過100%外,普遍仍低過100%。
“只要銀行健全、債務以本地債為主,債務危機不會浮現,只是,亞洲各國需清楚,經濟成長不會如以往強勁。"
或飽受“黑天鵝"效應困擾
聯昌研究首席經濟學家李興裕認為,整體來看,在外部盈餘穩健和銀行系統轉強下,亞洲各國已較2007至2008年更堅強,即使歐債危機顯著惡化,並向中美兩大經濟體擴散,亞洲強穩的基本面有望作為護墊。
可是,只要歐債迷霧一日不散,亞洲經濟前景可能得飽受“黑天鵝"效應困擾,因歐美兩地佔全球經濟高達70%,亞洲經濟始終無法和歐美國家脫鉤,這也是為何近期亞洲經濟成長疲態儘顯,寬鬆政策的風聲呼之欲出。
“若歐元區的債務形勢惡化,中國和美國經濟遇阻,第三季的亞洲經濟勢必更動盪,亞洲決策者恐無 法承擔任何政策失誤。"無論如何,李興裕認為,亞洲決策者自2008到2009年全球金融危機中吸取教訓後,應已作好全面準備捍衛經濟體,注資持續是各國 力挽狂瀾的武器,一些中行也已開始寬鬆利率。
亞洲政府可能致力為金融市場提供充足的海外貨幣游資,以避免信貸危機,也可能提供存款保證以保護貨幣,管理龐大和波動的資本流並著手雙邊貨幣掉期安排以寬鬆跨界融資成本。
“在財政和貨幣政策方面,新興亞洲國家也仍擁有調整空間,惟各國條件不同。"他預見,即使亞洲國家再度出手救市,振興配套規模將較2008至2009年的全球金融危機小。
只有兩條路可走
然而,亞洲始終可能得看清事實,即使歐債危機現轉機,歐美情況短期不會轉好,長期依賴出口的新興市場,接下來只有兩條路可走——轉變增長方式,把經濟擴大到國民消費,或相互扶持,加強緊密的經貿聯繫、合作。
債赤“雙高”
大馬承壓
若全球經濟衰退幾率高達35%、美國財政震撼幾率達15%、中國經濟崩潰幾率為15%……那麼,若歐債危機惡化、中美經濟成長告急引發“完美風暴",大馬是否招架得住?
原來,在外資眼中,大馬在債務和赤字各佔GDP高達55%和4.8%下,距離歐洲“周王"的路不遠,相對其他區域,對風暴的抵禦能力也較脆弱。
有“末日博士"之稱的經濟學家羅比尼引領的羅比尼全球經濟(RGE)率先開腔,若全球引爆完美風暴,大馬將是亞洲經濟體中最脆弱的國家,除因大馬對外開放度高的經濟體,也因節節攀升的國債令政策調控空間有限。
若不節制國債
信貸評級岌岌可危眼望歐美國家主權債務隨風暴搖搖欲墜,大馬高債務和高赤字的“雙高"險境,令信評機構惠譽(Fitch)和標準普爾(S&P)也搖搖頭,直言大馬若不再節制國債,現有的信貸評級優勢恐岌岌可危!
面對海外觀察家的抨擊,大馬經濟學家顯得較冷靜。大馬評估機構(RAM)首席經濟學家姚金龍直言,相對歐美國家債務佔GDP高達80至100%,大馬約55%的債務比例,雖令人擔心卻不至於危及國家命運,只要低於90%,都不至於拖垮大馬。
若完美風暴來襲,他坦言,除非完美風暴持續長達1年!否則料不會引起洶湧的波濤。他相信,大馬能站穩住腳,大馬的財政實力不俗,目前經常賬盈餘佔GDP介於10至12%,比許多區域國高。
他強調,不能單用債務來詮釋債務危機,因日本、新加坡的國債佔GDP比重皆超過100%,大馬的儲蓄投資非常正面、金融情況穩定且擁有強勁游資,都是可能被忽略的優勢。
“在大馬外部儲備強勁、財政地位穩健下,大馬具備應對條件,更重要的是,大馬是淨債權國,而非淨債務國,大部份債務由國內資金支撐,意味大馬有能力調控預算。"
他進一步分析,出口和進口結構具彈性也令大馬在出口受挫時,進口隨之走低,以致大馬長期取得貿易盈餘,原產品佔出口多達30%亦對大馬有利,這些多元化優勢讓大馬即使身置風暴,也不至於遍體鱗傷。
仍有能力調整財政方案
資深經濟學家白文春也認同,在財政盈餘不俗下,大馬仍有能力調整財政方案,只是這可能導致赤字進一步惡化。
受電子、原產品領域帶動,大馬自1998年錄得較同儕優越的經常賬盈餘,去年佔GDP比重雖自2008年的16.9%降低至11.2%,卻仍較許多同儕(如泰國和韓國)強勁。
MIDF研究經濟學家安東尼達斯提到,大馬政府債務雖是區域第二高,卻不等同於大馬政府債務足以構成威脅,畢竟大馬不缺其他財務優勢,如外資儲備和總儲蓄預期。
大馬8月的外資儲備自去年杪增加11億美元到1千347億美元,足以融資9.5個月的進口和相等於短期外債的3.9倍;全年總儲蓄佔GDP預測,估計自去年的33.2%降至32.8%。
大馬債券評估機構(MARC)首席經濟學家諾查哈迪同樣對國債引起的軒然大波不以為然,直言大馬在財政彈性方面確實承壓,卻未如印度般惡劣。
“印度的隱憂遠遠超過大馬,因印度赤字不斷攀升,經濟成長顯著滑落。"
日才是亞洲最令人擔心國家
伍德提到,大馬債務佔GDP逾50%雖有些高,惟不至於像歐洲般令人恐慌,嚴格來說,日本公債佔GDP逾200%,才是亞洲最令人擔心的國家,這也是為何該國嘗試提高稅收。
“我相信,大馬作風謹慎的國行將緊盯國債水平,適時採取應對策略。"
內需支撐成長
抵銷債務隱憂
大馬次季經濟成長在內需強勁帶動下令人跌破眼鏡,增長多達5.4%,令經濟學家紛紛上調經濟成長預測,該經濟成長潛力似乎也助於抵銷大馬高赤字和債務的風險。
姚金龍指出,只要國內經濟繼續成長,將有望抵銷債務高企的風險,根本無需過度擔憂。
“當經濟持續穩健增長,受衝擊的程度也會大大降低,同時,一旦全球經濟復甦,大馬經濟也有望反彈。"他對政府的還債能力不感擔憂,因目前外債佔GDP比重低於50%,只要大馬持續取得生產及成長,加上近100%就業率,就是有力的支撐。
外國信評過於悲觀
安東尼直言,外國信評機構對大馬的經濟成長過於悲觀,忽略了大馬經濟在內需支撐下的動力。
國家銀行放眼大馬全年經濟成長能夠取得高成長目標,達5%。經濟學家也普遍看好大馬達標,甚至破5%。
“若完美風暴來襲,大馬必然受影響,但未來數年的投資動力走高,加上私人消費穩健,可望提供重要護墊。"諾查哈迪也樂觀看待大馬經濟。
他認為,若風暴突襲,所有依賴貿易的國家都將遭衝擊,不只是大馬,而高度開放的國家-新加坡、台灣、香港反而是全球經濟震盪中最大受害者,因國內經濟不足以讓他們避免全球經濟震盪。
在伍德眼中,羅比尼和惠譽都有各自考量,因大馬作為出口國,一旦全球經濟告急,大馬出口難免受創,但他相信,大馬經濟穩健度較以往優越,歸功於政府逐步調整出口組合,加上內需強勁,令大馬消費力持續。
“值得一提的是,大馬固定資產的國內投資,如基建、產業、機械,在多年退色後正迎頭趕上。"
預算案目標:
債務佔GDP不超過55%
對於國債風波,政府最近也積極為市場注入強心劑,強調謹慎管理國家財政將是預算案的重大目標之一,以確保債務佔GDP比重不超過55%,同時將竭盡所能降低赤字至預期目標4.7%。
國家銀行的立場也非常堅定,國行總裁丹斯里潔蒂早前指出,大馬高債務不令人過慮,因為外債只佔國內生產總值的6%,不像歐洲般令人擔憂。
“我國政府債務多向國內融資,由國內市場融資達94%,至於對外舉債只有微不足道的6%,向外舉債僅佔國內生產總值的2%,未像歐洲那麼暴露於風險中。"
她強調,我國有充沛流動資金,人民儲蓄率高,公共和私人領域的經濟活動都向國內融資,家庭需求維持蓬勃,令國內經濟成長穩定。
結語:

亞洲金融風暴浩劫雖令今天的亞洲財政體系變得更堅強,但歐債風雲的“周王"卻為世人留下一個伏筆——若不謹慎理債,債台高築都可能是各國政府未來樂極生悲的下場。

然而,對於大馬的赤字和債務水平,究竟是“外行者"旁觀者清?還是“內行人"明察秋毫?或許,可藉債台高築的下篇,透過數字來解開債務迷團。

Thursday, August 23, 2012

Australia declares end of resources boom


Thursday August 23, 2012 MYT 12:17:00 PM

CANBERRA/MELBOURNE: Australia declared the end of the resources boom which had cushioned the country against the global financial crisis, a day after the world's biggest miner BHP Billiton shelved two major expansion plans worth at least $40 billion.

"The resources boom is over," Resources and Energy minister Martin Ferguson told Australian radio on Thursday. "We've done well -- A$270 billion ($282 billion) in investment, the envy of the world. It has got tougher in the last six to twelve months."

Ferguson's comments came after BHP announced it was indefinitely delaying the planned $20 billion-plus Olympic Dam copper expansion in South Australia and plans to build a new harbor, estimated at more than $20 billion, to nearly double its iron ore exports in Western Australia, looking for cheaper alternatives.

Fuelled by Chinese-led demand for its coal, iron ore and other resources, Australia's economy was one of the very few in the developed world to sail through the global financial crisis without sliding into recession.

The resources boom fuelled what has been dubbed a two-speed economy, which has pumped up the Australian dollar and exacerbated the pain felt in manufacturing sectors and retail in Australia's most populous states.

While manufacturers, like Ford and Bluescope Steel , have shut down plants and axed jobs, Australia's unemployment level has stayed around 5 percent, thanks to substantial jobs growth in resources projects, where truck drivers command six-figure pay packets.

FEAR MAY BE PREMATURE

Politicians may be worried the whole economy is moving into the slow lane, but analysts say the fear is premature, as energy projects, underpinned by customers who have already been locked in, will continue full steam ahead.

"A marriage of our macroeconomic research with analysis of already committed and possible projects has confirmed our expectations that a peak is coming, but is yet to arrive," National Australia Bank economists said in a report.

NAB expects the resources boom to peak in 2013 and 2014, when resource capital spending will be around 1 percent of gross domestic product higher than now.

BHP put the Olympic Dam expansion on hold as it reported a 35 percent slide in second-half profit, the biggest sign of the pain inflicted by the slowdown in China's economic growth.

Weaker demand from China has knocked prices of all key commodities, including iron ore, languishing at its lowest levels since December 2009, copper, coal and aluminum, clouding the outlook for all miners.

MINERS PUT BRAKES ON CAPITAL SPENDING

In response to pressure from shareholders worried about poor returns in a weak global markets, miners have put the brakes on capital spending, with BHP on Wednesday announcing it would not sanction any major new projects in the year to June 2013.

The Olympic Dam project, which had been due for approval by December 2012, would have created 25,000 jobs, according to the South Australian government.

"The next round was always going to be difficult and I must say Olympic Dam was always a very, very challenging project -- its sheer size," Minister Ferguson said.

He said he still hoped the project could go ahead.

"Our requirement now is to continue to work together in partnership, South Australian and Australian governments, with BHP Billiton to actually get this project in place," he said. - Reuters

Monday, July 23, 2012

Falling Interest Rates Destroy Capital

Submitted by Keith Weiner of 'Gold and Silver and Money and Credit' blog

I have written other pieces on the topic of fractional reserve banking (http://keithweiner.posterous.com/61391483 and http://keithweiner.posterous.com/fractional-reserve-is-not-the-problem) duration mismatch, which is when someone borrows short-term money to lend long-term and how falling interest rates actually encourages duration mismatch (http://keithweiner.posterous.com/falling-interest-rates-and-duration-mis...).
Falling interest rates are a feature of our current monetary regime, so central that any look at a graph of 10-year Treasury yields shows that it is a ratchet (and a racket, but that is a topic for another day!).  There are corrections, but over 31 years the rate of interest has been falling too steadily and for too long to be the product of random chance.  It is a salient, if not the central fact, of life in the irredeemable US dollar system, as I have written (http://keithweiner.posterous.com/irredeemable-paper-money-feature-451).

Here is a graph of the interest rate on the 10-year US Treasury bond.  The graph begins in the second half of July 1981.  This was the peak of the parabolic rise interest rates, with the rate at around 16%.  Today, the rate is 1.6%.



Professor Antal Fekete introduced the proposition that a falling interest rate (as opposed to a low and stable rate) causes capital destruction.  But all other economists, commentators, and observers miss the point.  It is no less a phenomenon for being unseen.  In early 2008, a question was left begging: how could a company like Bear Stearns which had strong and growing net income collapse so suddenly?

Here is Bear’s five-year net income and total shareholder’s equity

Year 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Income $1.156B $1.345B $1.462B $2.054B $0.233
Equity $7.47B $8.99B $10.8B $12.1B $11.8B

Isn’t that odd?  Even in 2007, Bear shows a profit.  And they show robust growth in shareholder equity, with only a minor setback in 2007.

And yet, by early 2008 Bear experienced what I will call Sudden Capital Death Syndrome.  JP Morgan bought them on Mar 16, for just over $1B.  But the deal hinged on the Fed taking on $29B of Bear’s liabilities, so the real enterprise value was closer to $-19B.

Obviously, Bear’s reported “profit” was not real.  And neither was their “shareholder’s equity”.  I think it something much more serious than just a simple case of fraud.  Simple fraud could not explain why almost the entire banking industry ran out of capital at the same time, after years of reporting good earnings and paying dividends and bonuses to management.

Also, other prominent companies were going bankrupt in 2008 and 2009 as well.  These included Nortel Networks, General Growth Partners, AIG, two big automakers.

I place the blame for Sudden Capital Death Syndrome on falling interest rates.  The key to understanding this is to look at a bond as a security.  This security has a market price that can go up and down.  It is not controversial to say that when the rate of interest falls, the price of a bond rises.  This is a simple and rigid mathematical relationship, like a teeter-totter.

A bond issuer is short a bond.  Unlike a homeowner who takes out a mortgage on his house, a bond issuer cannot simply “refinance”.  If it wants to pay off the debt, it must buy the bonds back in the market, at the current market price.

Let’s repeat that.  Anyone who issues a bond is short a security and that security can go up in price as well as go down in price.

Everyone understands that if a bond goes up, the bondholder gets a capital gain.  This is not controversial at all.  Nor is it controversial to say that there are two sides to every trade.  And yet it is highly controversial—to the point of being rejected with scorn—that the other side of the trade from the bondholder incurs the capital loss.  It is the bond issuer’s capital that flows to the bondholder.  To reject this is to say that money grows on trees.

We won’t explore that any further; money does not grow on trees!  Instead, we will look at this phenomenon of the capital loss of the bond issuer from several angles: (1) Hold Until Maturity; (2) Mark to Market; (3) Two Borrowers, Same Amount; (4) Two Borrowers, Different Amounts; (5) Net Present Value; (6) Capitalizing an Income; (7) Amortization of Plant; and (8) Real Meaning of an Interest Rate.

Hold Until Maturity

There is an argument that the bond issuer can just keep paying until maturity.  While that may be true in some circumstances, it misses the point.  When one enters into a position in a financial market, one must mark one’s losses as they occur, no matter than one may intend to hold the position until maturity.  How would a broker respond in the case of a client who shorted a stock and the stock rose in price subsequently?  Would the broker demand that the client post more margin?  Or would the broker be sympathetic if the client explained how the company had poor prospects and that the client intended to hold the short position until the company’s share price reflected the truth?

Mark to Market

The guiding principle of accounting is that it must paint an accurate and conservative picture of the current state of one’s finances.  It is not the consideration of the accountant that things may improve.  If things improve, then in the future the financial statement will look better!  In the meantime, the standard in accounting (notwithstanding the outrageous FASB decision in 2009 to suspend “mark to market”) is to mark assets at the lower of: (A) the original acquisition price, or (B) the current market price.

There ought to be a corresponding rule for liabilities: mark liabilities at the higher of (A) original sale price, or (B) current market price.  Unfortunately, the field of accounting developed its principles in an era where a fall in the rate of interest from 16% to 1.6% would have been inconceivable.  And so today, liabilities are not marked up as the rate of interest falls down.

Refusing to put ink on paper does not change the reality, however.  Closing one’s eyes does not prevent one from falling into a pit on the path in front of one’s feet.  The capital loss is very real, as we will explore further below.

Two Borrowers, Same Amount

Let’s look at two hypothetical companies in the same industry, pencil manufacturing.  Smithwick Pen sells a 20-year $10M bond at 8% interest.  It uses the proceeds to buy pencil-manufacturing equipment.  To fully amortize the $10M over 20 years, Smithwick must pay $83,644 per month.

The rate of interest now falls to half its previous rate.  Barnaby Crayon sells a 20-year $10M bond at 4%.  Barnaby buys the same equipment as Smithwick and becomes Smithwick’s competitor.  Barnaby pays $60,598 per month to amortize the same $10M debt.  Is it correct to say that both companies have identical balance sheets?  Obviously Barnaby will have a better income statement.  This is because it has a superior capital position, and this should be reflected on the balance sheets.  It certainly is not because of its superior product, management, or marketing.

Let’s look at this from the perspective of the capital position: the present value of a stream of payments.  Obviously, at 4% interest the monthly payment of $60,598 has a present value of $10M (otherwise we made a mistake in the math somewhere).  But what is the value of an $83,644 monthly payment at the new, lower rate of 4%?  It is $13.8M.  Smithwick’s has just experienced the erosion of $3.8M of capital!  This is reflected in reality, by the uncontroversial statement that it has a permanent competitive disadvantage compared to Barnaby.  Barnaby can undercut Smithwick and set prices wherever it wishes.  Smithwick is helpless.  Most likely, Barnaby will eke out a subsistence living, until the rate of interest falls further.  When Cromwell Writing Instruments borrows money at 2%, then Smithwick will be put out of its misery.  And Barnaby will be forced into the untenable position it had previously placed Smithwick.

It should be noted that the longer the bond maturity, the bigger this problem becomes.  For example, if this were a 30-year bond, then Smithwick would take a $5.4M hit to its capital if interest rates were 8% when it issued the bond and then fell to 4%.

Two Borrowers, Different Amounts

This is not the only way that a competitor can exploit the capital loss of a company who made the mistake of borrowing at a too-high interest rate.  Let’s look at the case of Poddy Hoddy Hotel and Casino.  Poddy sells a 20-year $100M bond at 8%, and has a monthly payment of $836K.  It builds a nice hotel and casino with bars, a restaurant, a pool, and a few jewelry stores.

A short while later, Xtreme Hotels sells a $138M bond at 4%, and has the same monthly payments.  The extra $38M goes into a second pool with a swim-up bar, another restaurant that is themed based on the Galapagos Islands, bigger and more opulent retail stores, and a spiral glass elevator to take guests up to their rooms while enjoying the breathtaking 270-degree views of the city.

Which hotel will consumers prefer?

The Poddy Hoddy Hotel may have been planned based on accurate market research that showed real demand for such a hotel in that location.  Unfortunately, the falling interest rate has undermined it.  Its investors will likely lose money.

The Xtreme Hotel, on the other hand, is probably a mal-investment.  It is likely a project for which there is no real demand.  But the falling interest rate gives a false signal to the entrepreneur to build it.  Of course, the Xtreme won’t be the one to experience Sudden Capital Death Syndrome first.  That fate will befall Poddy.  Xtreme’s turn will come later, at a lower interest rate.

With Smithwick, one might argue that it can pay off its bond in the 20 years it originally expected, so it has not experienced a loss.  But in fact, there is a loss even from this angle.  Smithwick is paying off its 8% bond at $83,644 per month.  But the rate of interest is now 4%, which should be a payment of $60,598.  The accurate way to look at this is that Smithwick is paying off a market-rate bond plus a penalty of $23,046 for every month remaining before the bond is fully amortized.

With Poddy Hoddy, one might similarly argue that it can pay off its bond as planned, so it has not taken a loss.  But the loss here is even clearer.  By borrowing $100M at a rate that was too high, it has effectively dissipated the extra $38M that its competitor, Xtreme, put to good use.  It will pay for this waste every month for 20 years (or until it goes bankrupt).

By not marking the losses at Smithwick and Poddy, the accountants are not doing these companies or their investors any favors.  In the short run, these companies may declare “profits” and based on that pay dividends to investors and bonuses to management.  But sooner or later, they will meet Barnaby and Xtreme who will deal the coup de grace of Sudden Capital Death Syndrome.

Net Present Value

As alluded above, one can calculate the Net Present Value (NPV) of a stream of payments.  First, let’s look at the formula to calculate the present value of a single payment is:
http://www.zerohedge.com/sites/default/files/images/user3303/imageroot/2012/07-2/20120720_rates2.png
It should be obvious that the present value of a payment is lower the farther into the future it is to be made.  One does not value a payment due in 2042 the same as a payment to be made next year.  What is not so glaring is that the value is lower for higher rates of interest.  A $1000 payment due next year is worth $909 if the rate of interest is 10%, but $990 at 1%.  This difference is amplified due to compounding.  At 10 years, the payment is worth $385 at 10% versus $905 at 1%.

The NPV of a stream of payments is the sum of the value of each payment.  The value of a $1000 payment made annually for 20 years is $9818 at 8% interest.  That same payment at 4% has an NPV of $13,590, a 38% increase.

It is important to emphasize that while the bond issuer’s monthly payment is fixed based on the amount of capital raised and the interest rate at the time, the NPV of its liability must be calculated at the current rate of interest.  The market (and the universe) does not know nor care what bond issuer’s entry point was.  Objectively, all streams of payments of $1000 per month have the same value at a given maturity and current interest rate, regardless of the original rate.

Capitalizing an Income

Let’s look at this from yet another angle.  An income can be capitalized, and the purpose of capital is to produce an income.  Professor Antal Fekete wrote[3]:

“Suppose you are a worker taking home $50,000 a year in wages. When your income-flow is capitalized at the current rate of interest of, say, 5 percent, you arrive at the figure of $1,000,000. The sum of one million dollars or its equivalent in physical capital must exist somewhere, in some form, the yield of which will continue paying your wages. Capital has been accumulated and turned into plant and equipment to support you at work. Part of your employer’s capital is the wage fund that backs your employment. Assuming, of course, that no one is allowed to tamper with the rate of interest.” [Emphasis in the original]

“Suppose for the sake of argument that the rate of interest is cut in half to 2½ percent. Nothing could be clearer than the fact that the $1,000,000 wage fund is no longer adequate to support your payroll, as its annual yield has been reduced to $25,000. This can be described by saying that every time the rate of interest is cut by half, capital is being destroyed, wiping out half of the wage fund. Unless compensation is made by adding more capital, your employment is no longer supported by a full slate of capital as before. Since productivity is nothing but the result of combining labor and capital, the productivity of your job has been impaired. You are in danger of being laid off ? or forced to take a wage cut of $25,000.”

Without capital, human productivity is barely enough to produce a subsistence living.  Without tools, one is obliged to work long hours at back-breaking tasks in order to have a meager meal, some sort of clothing, and something to keep the rain off one’s head.  Capital destruction is the process of moving backwards towards a time where one worked harder to obtain less.

As described earlier, when the rate of interest falls, it erodes the capital of every bond issuer.  If one looks at this capital as being the wage fund (or part of it is the wage fund), then the bond issuer can no longer afford to pay its employees the same wage.  If it does continue the same wage anyway, it will eventually suffer the consequences of running out of capital.

Amortization of Plant

Now let’s consider the concept of amortizing equipment and plant at Smithwick Pen.  Smithwick borrows $10M to buy equipment.  Out of its revenues, it must set aside something to amortize this over the useful life of the equipment, which is 20 years in our example.  This set-aside reduces net income; it is not profit but capital maintenance assuming the company intends to remain in business after the current generation of equipment and plant wears out.

How much should it set aside every month?  This is the inverse of the NPV calculation.  We are now interested in the current monthly payment to arrive at a fixed sum at a future point in time (as opposed to the present value of a stream of fixed payments).  The lower the rate of interest, the more Smithwick must set aside every month in order to reach the goal by the deadline.  To understand this, just look at what Smithwick must do.  Each month, it puts some money into an interest-bearing account or bond.  Even if it chooses the longest possible maturity for each payment (i.e. the first payment is put into a 20-year bond, the next into a 19-year 11-month bond, etc.) it is clear that if interest rates are falling then each payment must increase to compensate.  Smithwick’s profits are falling with the rate of interest!

If Smithwick persists in setting aside every month what it initially calculated when it purchased the pencil-making equipment, it will have a shortfall at the end, when it needs to replace the equipment.

Real Meaning of an Interest Rate

Let’s consider what it really means to have a high or a low rate of interest.  I propose to do reductio ad absurdum.  We will look at two cases (which would be pathological if they occurred) to make the point clearer.

The first case is if the rate of interest is 100%.  This means that a $1000 payment one year from today is worth ½ of the nominal value, or $500 today.  A payment due in two years is worth $250 today, etc.  At this rate of interest, for whatever reason, “future money” is worth very little present money.  In other words, the burden experienced by the debtor is a small fraction of the nominal value of the debt.

The second case is if the rate of interest is zero.  This means that a $1000 payment due one year from today or 100 years from today is worth $1000 today.  At this rate of interest, for whatever reason, future money is worth every penny of its nominal value today.  There is no discount at all, not for the loss of use of the money in the meantime, not for the risk, not for currency debasement.  In other words, the burden experienced by the debtor is the full nominal value of the debt.

Again, to emphasize, one must use the current market rate of interest not the rate of interest contracted by the borrower at the time of the bond issuance.

The lower the rate of interest, the more highly one values a future payment.  The higher the rate of interest, the more highly one discounts a future payment.  These statements are true whether one is the payer or the payee.  The payer and payee are just parties on opposite sides of the same trade.

Irving Fisher, writing about falling prices (I shall address the connection between falling prices and falling interest rates in a forthcoming paper) proposed a paradox[4]:

“The more the debtors pay, the more they owe.”

Debtors slowly pay down their debts and reduce the principle owed.  This would reduce the NPV of their debts in a normal environment.  But in a falling-interest-rate environment, the NPV of outstanding debt is rising due to the falling interest rate at a pace much faster than it is falling due to debtors’ payments.  The debtors are on a treadmill and they are going backwards at an accelerating rate.

How apropos is Fisher’s eloquent sentence summarizing the problem!